Ensuring equitable access to urban green spaces is a major challenge in contemporary urban planning, with important implications for public health, well-being and environmental justice. However, comparative cross-city analyses based on harmonised methodologies remain limited, particularly across contrasting European climatic and morphological contexts. This study aims to: (i) assess the spatial distribution of public green spaces; (ii) evaluate neighbourhood-level accessibility and identify environmental justice inequalities; and (iii) examine how urban form and climatic context influence accessibility outcomes across the following three medium-sized European cities: Faro (Portugal), Tartu (Estonia) and Nitra (Slovakia). A GIS-based approach was applied using consistent criteria, including publicly accessible green spaces ≥ 1 ha, Euclidean buffers of 300 m and 500 m, and harmonised population data from the Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL). Accessibility was quantified as the proportion of residents living within the defined walking-distance thresholds. The results reveal substantial inter- and intra-urban disparities. Tartu exhibits the highest green space provision (23.34 m2/inhabitant), while Faro presents the lowest (5.67 m2/inhabitant). However, accessibility patterns do not directly reflect provision levels: Faro achieves accessibility values at 500 m comparable to those of Tartu, whereas Nitra shows lower accessibility despite moderate provision. These findings demonstrate that accessibility is shaped primarily by the spatial configuration of green spaces rather than by overall provision alone. The study highlights the importance of integrating urban morphology and climatic context into environmental justice assessments and urban green infrastructure planning in order to reduce spatial inequalities in access to urban nature.

Urban protected areas are increasingly significant for health and daily wellbeing of urban residents and for achieving nature protection goals. While visitation of those areas is continuously increasing as cities become denser, for visitors, the conservation purpose of these spaces remains often unknown or inconsequential. This presents a fundamental paradox in urban protected area management, balancing conservation with recreational use. Our research explores relationships between recreational activities, landscape characteristics and seasonality in an urban protected area in the boreal region with four seasons throughout the year. The study highlights that urban protected areas next to dense populations function as intensively used, multifunctional socio-ecological systems without seasonal rest periods. The findings indicate strong correlations between certain landscape characteristics and visitor diversity and density, e.g. multiple-stand forests are underused, trails are used most heavily, facilities have an important role of gathering visitors. Despite these correlations, our results highlight that understanding urban protected area visitation requires an analysis of factors outside the green space boundaries as external factors such as proximity to dense population also influence visitation. This study shows that in an urban setting green spaces are visited throughout the year and certain winter activities (skiing, sledding) are represented so heavily that they outweigh other summer activities in some areas annually. Effective conservation and recreation management therefore require continuous monitoring, management effort throughout all seasons, spatially differentiated strategies, and data-rich approaches capable of capturing complex temporal and behavioural dynamics.

Urban blue spaces provide important ecosystem services (ES), that support health and well-being of city residents. This study examined residents' perceptions of ES provided by managed, semi-managed and low-managed blue spaces and their surroundings in Warsaw, a city dominated by the River Vistula which flows through its centre and is partially unregulated. We conducted a geo-questionnaire, asking respondents to mark their favourite blue spaces and evaluate them for different ES benefits. The data were analysed using cluster, correlation and spatial analysis to identify patterns and synergies among perceived ES. The results revealed five distinct ES clusters, showing synergies among aesthetic, recreational and nature appreciation related values. Managed blue spaces, such as urban parks or promenades, were primarily associated with social bonding, while historical and neighbourhood parks are valued for providing an everyday connection to nature and biodiversity. Low- and semi-managed areas, including vast informal riversides, play an important role in recreation, relaxation, connection to nature, and social bonding. These areas provide similar benefits with minimal interventions, highlighting their potential as Informal Blue Spaces, integral part of urban blue-green infrastructure. The results add to the increasing evidence of the social value of blue spaces and demonstrate how diverse management and investment approaches can support complementary socio-cultural benefits in cities.

Blue space, as an important natural and social composite feature system in cities, not only provides supporting, regulating, and provisioning services, but also plays a key role in human well-being, recreational experience, and urban sustainable development. The blue space cultural ecosystem service (CES) has gradually attracted the attention of academia in recent years, but there is a lack of systematic integration research in related fields. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive analysis of current studies to clarify how, and to what extent, blue spaces influence CESs. This study adopts a PRISMA-based systematic search combined with qualitative synthesis, aiming to review the research status of CES and its developmental trajectory within blue space studies, and to identify future research trends and critical gaps. A total of 52 studies meeting the inclusion criteria were finally selected through database screening. The research innovatively divides the evolution of blue space CES into three stages (2012–2017/2018–2022/2023–2025), revealing a shift in research focus from single value identification to complex policy support. Secondly, through the mapping of six typical blue space types (such as rivers and wetlands) and 10 CES indicators, combined with a Pearson correlation heatmap, it provides quantitative insights into the coupling mechanisms between indicators, such as the significant synergy between spiritual and educational values. Methodologically, it systematically discriminates between the application boundaries of monetary valuation based on the contingent valuation method and non-monetary valuation represented by social media big data and PPGIS, pointing out that technological progress is driving the evaluation toward high dynamics and refinement. Finally, the study points out current bottlenecks such as uneven geographical distribution and insufficient planning transformation, emphasizing that future research should use artificial intelligence to improve data processing accuracy and transform blue space CESs from “invisible welfare” into “explicit policy assets” to guide sustainable urban renewal and healthy space design.

Generative AI (GenAI), particularly text-to-image (TTI) models, is reshaping landscape representation by transforming textual descriptions into visual outputs. However, these models often reinforce biases embedded in their training datasets, shaping how landscapes are perceived and represented. This research examines the biases in GenAI-generated landscape imagery through the lens of Edward Said’s “imaginative geographies”, focusing on how geographic references, cultural archetypes, and methodological factors influence AI outputs. We employed a structured approach to create prompts based on the Global Ecosystem Typology (GET), using Midjourney V6.1 as the primary tool for image generation. We extracted landscape descriptors from GET classifications and structured them into both simple and detailed prompts. The analysis involved comparing AI-generated images to ecological classifications and reference images to assess biases. The findings reveal the following three key types of biases: (1) geographic biases, where certain locations act as semantic triggers, leading to culturally stereotypical portrayals; (2) representation biases, where landscapes frequently depicted in AI training datasets appear with greater accuracy, while underrepresented landscapes are simplified into essentialized visual tropes; and (3) methodological biases, where prompt complexity influences representational accuracy but does not eliminate pre-existing cultural hierarchies. To address the bias challenges, the research presents the following four key recommendations for future research and practice: (1) incorporating finer-scale ecosystem classifications; (2) diversifying training datasets; (3) engaging local communities in participatory data collection; and (4) refining prompt-writing methodologies. These insights contribute to broader discussions on AI bias, emphasizing the necessity of critically evaluating the role of generative models in shaping landscape imaginaries.

The phenomenon of global population aging poses considerable mobility challenges for older adults, particularly in cold climate regions, where the accessibility and configuration of street elements exert a significant impact on social participation and safety during severe winter conditions. Employing a combination of non-participatory observation, behavior mapping, and spatial analysis across different winter periods, this study investigates three residential streets in Harbin, China. The research systematically documents the types, frequencies, and spatial distributions of both social activities and street infrastructure utilized by the elderly. Subsequently, kernel density overlays of elderly social activity and street element distributions enable a nuanced analysis of the influence of environmental features on older adults’ social engagement throughout the three delineated winter phases. The findings reveal the following: (1) There is persistent demand for outdoor social interaction among the elderly, with participation rates inversely proportional to the severity of winter, peaking in early winter and declining through late and harsh winter stages; (2) Variations in activity types and durations are closely associated with spatial configurations: dynamic activities are predominantly observed along linear street segments, whereas passive behaviors cluster at intersections and broader street expanses; (3) There are several key aspects of street design and street furniture provision that help to support the use of streets in winter by the elderly. However, the influence of seating and fitness elements on mobile activities is limited. This study contributes to promoting inclusive urban design for older people in cold climates.

Humans and nature have always been connected. Meanwhile, with the industrial revolution, landscapes have become more artificial, reducing the human–nature relationship. Urban design should follow biophilic principles to reconnect people with nature, mitigate climate change, improve air quality, restore biodiversity loss, and solve social problems. Poor air quality affects people’s health, and vegetation plays a crucial role in purifying the air. Similarly, contact with nature benefits physical and mental health and well-being. However, there is no consensus on how urban design can be beneficial for improving air quality and human health. This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of evidence linking nature-based solutions (NBSs), air quality, carbon neutrality, and human health and well-being. Five hundred articles published between 2000 and 2024 were analysed. A number of publications studied the benefits of green infrastructure in improving air quality, carbon sequestration, or the influence of green spaces on human health. The topic of NBSs has recently emerged related to air quality, health, and promoting physical activity, as has accessibility to green spaces and mental health, also associated with blue spaces and residential gardens. The results revealed the gaps in the literature on how to design green and blue spaces to tackle environmental and public health crises simultaneously.

University students frequently suffer from mental health challenges such as stress, depression, and anxiety during their studies. It is therefore crucial to offer spaces and landscapes on the university campus that offer mental restoration and promote well-being, given the substantial time spent there. Prior research has explored the impact of exposure to campus landscape on students' mental health and the types of spaces that could support activities with potential health benefits. However, further investigation is needed into the specific landscape characteristics that encourage space use and support students' mental well-being. To address this knowledge gap, we explored how the characteristics of campus outdoor spaces affect students' preferences concerning spaces they like and dislike to visit, and the subsequent effects on their mental health. We employed a Public Participatory Geographic Information System (PPGIS) approach, focusing on Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh campus in Scotland. Our findings indicate that students exhibit consistent preferences for areas on campus with a high level of greenery, diverse trees and flowers, views of blue spaces, peacefulness, quietness, pleasant smells, and sounds, as well as the presence of benches and tables. These characteristics were also found to facilitate restorative experiences. Conversely, the absence of these elements serves as barriers to students visiting outdoor spaces on campus. The results also revealed that students typically visit their preferred blue/green campus landscapes twice a week for 10-30-minutes on average, which was sufficient to experience the reported mental health benefits as measured through self-reported restorative outcomes. These insights offer valuable implications for the design and development of restorative university campuses.

Although spending time in nature can improve subjective wellbeing (SWB), little is known about how different types of nature exposure are associated with different dimensions of SWB or the consistency of associations across national/cultural contexts. Using data from 18 countries, associations between green, coastal and freshwater blue space exposures (including residential availability, visits ‘yesterday’ and visits in the previous four weeks) and hedonic, eudaimonic, and evaluative wellbeing were estimated. Overall, residential nature availability showed little association with any wellbeing outcome, whereas visiting green and coastal locations ‘yesterday’ was associated with better hedonic wellbeing. Although frequently visiting green, coastal and freshwater spaces were all associated with greater evaluative wellbeing, greater eudaimonic wellbeing was only associated with frequent visits to green and freshwater spaces. Variations existed across countries. Results suggest that different types of nature exposure vary in their association with different dimensions of SWB. Understanding these differences may help us maximise the potential of natural environments as SWB-promoting resources.

This paper adopts an ecological approach to describe the opportunities offered by school landscape for children's curricular learning. The approach is based on Gibson's concept of affordances which refers to the opportunities offered by an environment to its users. The research conducted in school grounds in two different contexts - Scotland and Bangladesh drew on this theory to examine the relationship between the school landscape and children's learning. Case study research included application of observation and behaviour mapping in school grounds, and interviews with participants in both contexts. Opportunities for teaching and learning offered by the school landscape in both cases were later defined as 'cognitive affordances' by the authors. 'The concept of 'cognitive' affordances' had limited attention in the field of landscape research. This paper thus introduces and defines the term to understand and study the potential of outdoor environments for development of children's learning and cognition.

University students frequently experience high levels of stress, depression, anxiety, and a variety of other mental health challenges. There is growing evidence that university campus landscapes may offer tangible benefits for mental health and overall well-being but to date this has not been brought together and synthesised. Therefore, a thorough analysis of the existing body of research on how and to what extent university campus landscapes can impact student mental health is needed. A scoping review of relevant studies was carried out with the aim of highlighting any gaps in knowledge and to offer recommendations for potential future research directions. The review was based on the PRISMA-ScR Checklist. Through a database search, 54 studies were identified as eligible for inclusion in the review, following several consecutive screening stages. We observed a considerable diversity in exposure data, study designs, outcome measures, landscape types and characteristics. Over 96% of the included studies indicated a positive relationship between different aspects of university campus landscapes and student mental health while only two studies reported no association. The review uncovered gaps in the current evidence base regarding the effect of campus blue spaces and landscape design characteristics on student mental health. Furthermore, associations with some mental health conditions like schizophrenia, emotional and attentional problems, and eating disorders have not been investigated to date. The findings identify a need for additional studies addressing these specific aspects.

This paper critically reflects on a participatory multi-phase mixed-methods action research study with an embedded quasi-experiment to investigate the design and development of a school landscape in Bangladesh. The study employs a suite of qualitative, quantitative and visual methods to co-design the school landscape with children, teachers and the school community, and examine the impact of the redesigned schoolgrounds on the teaching and learning process, children's academic attainment, engagement (motivation) and play during break times. This research approach is novel within landscape architecture and represents a methodological shift in the field of design and planning of schoolgrounds. By critically reflecting on the methodological approach and outlining strategies to overcome the challenges related to this complex design, the paper provides new insights that contribute to the design and planning of mixed-methods evaluation in landscape architecture research.

Access to urban green and blue spaces (UGBSs) has been associated with positive effects on health and wellbeing; however, the past decades have seen a decline in quality and user satisfaction with UGBSs. This reflects the mounting challenges that many UK cities face in providing appropriate public facilities, alongside issues such as health inequalities, an ageing population, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. At present, little is known about the preferences of different population subgroups and, specifically, the UGBSs they visit and the spaces they avoid. Using a public participatory geographic information system (PPGIS), the overall aim of the research presented here was to investigate the preferences of different population subgroups in urban areas, and the UGBSs they visit, using Edinburgh, Scotland as a case study. We created a baseline visitor demographic profile for UGBS use, and highlighted how visitors perceive, physically access, use, and engage with UGBSs. The results revealed considerable variation in UGBS preference: one person’s favourite UGBS may be one that someone else dislikes and avoids. It is clear that adapting UGBSs to suit local communities should not be a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach. The conflicting views and preferences of different groups of respondents point to the importance of developing policies and park management plans that can accommodate a variety of uses and experiential qualities within individual parks. PPGIS approaches, such as those utilised in this study, offer opportunities to address this issue and provide evidence to increase equitable UGBS usage.

Background: Some studies indicate that analyses of neighbourhood environment perceptions and walking behaviour in relation to western models are ineffective or counterproductive in Chinese cities, leading to calls for understanding walking behaviour more through the lens of specific contexts, such as how people in particular cultures and locations live, work and play differently. We aim to build on empirical and theoretical knowledge as to how built environment characteristics affect walking behaviour in low-tier Chinese cities. Methods: A mixed-methods field-work approach was employed by this study in Suihua (Heilongjiang Province, China) including an adapted version of the Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Scale questionnaire (n = 187), on-site observation and face-to-face interviews. Multiple linear regression was used to analyse the associations of walking duration with sociodemographic characteristics, walking motivations and neighbourhood environmental attributes across three age groups. Interviews and observations were designed to further explore the walking associations through a local culture lens. Results and conclusion: Our results found that walking duration was positively associated with recreational motivation, but negatively associated with commercial recreational amenities. The age-related associations of walking with the same amenities differed (e.g., walking to Internet bars was negatively associated with middle-aged adults' walking duration but positively associated with younger adults). The findings from this study can inform planning policies relating to the design of walkable neighbourhoods in low-tier Chinese cities including the consideration of age difference, the effect of weather variables, differing walking motivations, considerations around amenities for recreational walking (e.g., going to parks) and high-consumption recreational amenities (e.g., karaoke bars). It suggests that walking as a social behaviour requires cultural tailoring and should be re-examined in different local and cultural contexts.

European countries have different experience in landscape characterisation and assessment. Comparing the different approaches used in different European countries, it is proposed to use the method developed and validated in the United Kingdom - Landscape Character Assessment, adapted and modified for the Latvian situation. This approach has also been used in most other European countries, which have chosen to use the UK approach to landscape characterisation, adapting it to their specific national situation. The need for a landscape assessment in Latvia is highlighted in the Latvian Landscape Policy Guidelines 2013-2019 and Latvian Landscape Policy Implementation Plan 2024-2027, taking into account the actions set out in the European Landscape Convention to be taken by all Parties to the Convention. The purpose of the research was to carry out the analysis of Latvian landscape sensitivity within spatial planning scenarios important for local municipalities. It is of high importance to assess landscape sensitivity for changes of build and natural environment influencing pace and scale of development of the rural areas of Latvia. As local municipalities set different goals for their spatial development, common spatial development scenarios were chosen to make analysis of landscape sensitivity in Latvian landscapes. Results from the analysis of landscape sensitivity show variation of suitable actions to be implemented if different places in Latvia. The results also can be used for defining landscape quality goals to harmonise scope of activities to be implemented by local municipalities of Latvia.

This study examined the evaluation of cultural ecosystem services (CESs) and their impact on well-being in peri-urban areas, using a case study in Harku municipality, Estonia. CESs, encompassing intangible factors such as emotions and values, are crucial for well-being but challenging to assess. To address this, a pilot method was developed, involving a typology of natural environment types (NETs) and contact types (CTs), assessed by a panel of local experts. The results revealed that "spiritual, historic, and symbolic" gardens exhibited a strong positive connection to well-being. Blue and green spaces offering physical activities and aesthetics were also highly rated. Surprisingly, cemeteries scored higher than expected. Agreement among experts varied, with "parks + sporting" showing near-perfect consensus and weaker agreement found in "parks + food production", "blue spaces + providing gathering places", and "green landscape elements + education", highlighting diverse expert perspectives in identifying suitable combinations of NETs and CTs. This study addresses research-to-practice gaps and methodological challenges in applying CESs within planning frameworks, providing valuable insights for managing and conserving services in peri-urban areas. By testing the proposed method, this research contributes to a better understanding of how CESs can be effectively integrated into planning processes, fostering sustainable well-being in peri-urbanised regions.

This study combined landscape character assessment (LCA) and cultural ecosystem services (CES) frameworks to evaluate human well-being in the peri-urban area of Harku Municipality, Estonia. Using geospatial data combined with expert opinions, the study investigated the interplay between landscape character types and environmental/contact types through the LCA method. In total, 21 distinct landscape types comprising 47 separate areas were identified, with CES values determined for each. Restorative, social, and cognitive values were associated with each landscape character type. The findings demonstrated the higher restorative potential of blue and green elements (water bodies, forests) with low settlement density and minimal agriculture. High-density settlements with good road access demonstrated significant social values, while mixed forests and wetlands tended to be associated with higher cognitive values. Coastal zones with semi-dense settlements and mixed forests earned favourable ratings, whereas industrial/agricultural landscapes were rated lowest for all values. These findings offer valuable insights into the complex dynamics of urban–rural interactions, resilience, and the impact of urbanisation on CES. They may inform future landscape management strategies, urban planning decisions, and policy considerations. Additionally, this study highlights the need for further research to explore the long-term trends and potential changes in CES in evolving peri-urban environments.

Behaviour observation and mapping are useful planning tools to generate evidence to create people-friendly public spaces. Small-scale interventions are gaining popularity as cost-effective and quick solutions to regenerate degraded urban outdoor environments. Onsite behaviour observation mapping with GIS underpins evidence gathering, analysis, and planning and design decision-making. Using the BlueHealth Behaviour Assessment Tool (BBAT) developed within the EU-funded Horizon 2020 Project "Blue Health", we carried out pre- and post- intervention observations of visits, activities and visitors' characteristics in a site at Teats Hill, Plymouth, United Kingdom. Pre-post comparison of visits and activities in three target areas the entire site before and the within-site intervention area (a small open-air theatre) and the rest of the site afterwards were examined to analyse the impact of the intervention on socialising and relaxing activities. Behaviour observation data was both spatially and statistically analysed. Key outcomes were sitting, standing, walking, activity with a dog, viewing, using a phone and socialising. Both a logistic regression model and spatial analysis using density maps and hot spot analysis confirmed an increased use of the open-air theatre and its positive impact on the use of the rest of the park (the non-intervention area). Our logit models showed that the intervention promoted positive behaviour for health (i.e. blue space activities, socialisation, and relaxing activities), greater inclusivity and diversity of visitors. We conclude that an evidence-based design approach can increase blue space accessibility, improve place affordances and promote positive behaviour and psychological well-being benefitting local communities.