Foodborne illness outbreaks have heightened pressures on growers to improve food safety, including mitigating possible threats from wildlife. Among wildlife, birds are particularly challenging to deter, and the risks they pose to pre‐harvest food safety remain unclear. Further, deterrence efforts can jeopardize conservation and biological control, necessitating strategies that effectively lead to co‐management of farmlands for conservation, pest control and pre‐harvest food safety. Promotion of birds of prey with nest boxes may be one promising strategy to promote species of conservation concern that can deter pest birds that damage crops and introduce foodborne pathogens. Here, we evaluate if the American kestrel ( Falco sparverius ), a small falcon, can concurrently reduce crop damage and pre‐harvest food safety risks from birds in sweet cherry orchards in Michigan, USA. In orchards with and without active kestrel nest boxes, we conducted avian transect surveys, estimated the percentage of cherries with bird damage and estimated the percentage of branches and cherries with faeces. We collected faecal samples directly from birds and crop surfaces. We tested faeces for Campylobacter , the most common foodborne pathogen in birds, using both culturing and PCR. Fewer birds were present in fields with nest boxes, which translated into reduced bird damage (0.47% vs 2.50%) and fewer branches with faeces (2.33% vs 6.88%). Faeces on individual cherries were rare (4/15,890 [0.025%] cherries across all sites). We detected one or more species of Campylobacter using culturing and/or PCR in 10.65% (33/310) of bird faeces collected from crops and in 19.67% (24/122) of samples collected directly from birds. Detection rates were similar in fields with and without nest boxes. Despite the somewhat high overall detection, cultivable Campylobacter were only detected in 0.97% of faeces collected from crops. Synthesis and applications . Pre‐harvest food safety and wildlife conservation are often thought to be in conflict, and produce growers have few tools to effectively manage birds. However, our findings suggest that the promotion of birds of prey using nest boxes may be one way for growers to conserve a declining species, reduce crop damage and reduce in‐field faecal contamination that could cause foodborne illness.

Recent work has illuminated huge inequities in academic publishing based on author demographics such as assumed gender, geography, language and prestige. Yet, little attention has been paid to the inequities that scientists with disabilities face. We reviewed the websites of 541 ecology and evolution journals to examine the extent to which they prompt authors to prepare accessible manuscripts. Here we show that nearly three-quarters of journals do not encourage authors to consider accessibility when preparing manuscripts. Existing guidelines focus primarily on colour-blind-friendly figures, which were mentioned almost twice as often as any other recommendation. Our survey signals an urgent need for widespread journal policy reforms that require authors to format their manuscripts according to Universal Design principles. As a starting point to improving manuscript accessibility, we provide an accessibility checklist for authors to reference when preparing manuscripts. We conclude with recommendations for an iterative process of reform in collaboration with the disability community.

1. Because birds can carry foodborne pathogens, widespread concern exists that birds impose food-safety risks to farms. Growers are thus often encouraged to deter birds and forego harvesting crops near bird faeces (e.g., no-harvest buffers). Developing a holistic understanding of the pathogen spillover process-from individual infection to pathogen persistence on crops-is essential to understand and manage food-safety risks associated with birds. 2. Here, we coupled field and greenhouse experiments to understand the relative risks associated with different bird species on California farms. We first compared E. coli survival in bird faeces on lettuce, soil, and plastic mulch to identify where pathogens are likely to persist. Next, we quantified pathogen survival in faeces from 10 bird species to identify higher-risk species. Finally, we combined pathogen survival data with bird surveys and faecal transects to assess food-safety risks across 29 California lettuce farms. 3. E. coli abundance rapidly declined in bird faeces, but rates varied across substrates. E. coli survival was higher on lettuce compared to soil and plastic mulch, likely because of lettuce's cooler and wetter microclimate. E. coli persistence was also much higher in faeces from larger birds-which produce larger faeces-than small songbirds. Importantly, minimal differences in persistence among species were observed after all faeces were standardized to the same mass. 4. Though bird faeces were common on farms, most birds entering farms, contacting crops, and defecating on crops were small songbirds that defecate small faeces. Coupled with our finding that similar to 90% of faeces were deposited on soil, these results suggest that most birds on farms present relatively low food-safety risks. 5. Synthesis and applications. Growers are often encouraged to deter all bird species and forego harvesting crops near all bird faeces, but our work suggests not all birds and faeces pose the same food-safety risks. If growers ignored small bird faeces on soil, then we estimate that the area of California lettuce farms affected by no-harvest buffers could decrease from similar to 10.3% to similar to 2.7%. More broadly, our results suggest farmers could promote small, insect-eating birds by erecting nest boxes or preserving habitat without necessarily compromising food safety.

Natural areas near farmland can provide refuge for birds that contribute to natural pest control. However, birds can endanger food safety by defecating on or near produce. Work in the western US suggests that Campylobacter spp. are the potential foodborne pathogens most commonly associated with wild birds and that pathogen prevalence is higher in landscapes dominated by animal agriculture. However, relatively little is known about other fresh-market-produce growing regions. Working on produce farms in the Southeastern US, we characterized bird communities, tested bird feces deposited on crop foliage for Campylobacter and Salmonella, and searched for landscape features associated with heightened bird-associated food safety risks. We found that bird communities on farms were generally similar across ecoregions. Campylobacter was never detected from bird feces deposited on crop foliage, but Salmonella was detected in 8.6% of fecal samples. Salmonella prevalence in crop-surface-collected bird feces was highest when farms also produced livestock and when wetland cover was prevalent in the landscape. Overall, our results suggest that on-farm livestock production may be an indicator of bird-associated food safety risks in the Southeast, as in the West. We suggest there may be some similarities, but important differences, in food safety risks posed by birds in different US produce growing regions.

Empirical studies on peer review bias are primarily conducted by people from privileged groups and with affiliations with the journals studied. Data access is one major barrier to conducting peer review research. Accordingly, we propose pathways to broaden access to peer review data to people from more diverse backgrounds.

BACKGROUNDRising global temperatures are associated with emerging insect pests, reflecting earlier and longer insect activity, faster development, more generations per year and changing species' ranges. Insecticides are often the first tools available to manage these new threats. In the southeastern US, sweet potato whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) has recently become the major threat to vegetable production. We used data from a multi-year, regional whitefly monitoring network to search for climate, land use, and management correlates of whitefly activity.RESULTSStrikingly, whiteflies were detected earlier and grew more abundant in landscapes with greater insecticide use, but only when temperatures were also relatively warm. Whitefly outbreaks in hotter conditions were not associated with specific active ingredients used to suppress whiteflies, which would be consistent with a regional disruption of biocontrol following sprays for other pests. In addition, peak whitefly detections occurred earlier in areas with more vegetable production, but later with more cotton production, consistent with whiteflies moving among crops.CONCLUSIONAltogether, our findings suggest possible links between warmer temperatures, more abundant pests, and frequent insecticide applications disrupting biological control, though this remains to be explicitly demonstrated. Climate-initiated pesticide treadmills of this type may become an increasingly common driver of emerging pest outbreaks as global change accelerates. (c) 2023 Society of Chemical Industry. Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) were detected earlier and reached greater numbers where insecticide use in the landscape was greatest, but only when temperatures were also relatively warm.image

As data and computing power have surged in recent decades, statistical modeling has become an important tool for understanding ecological patterns and processes. Statistical modeling in ecology faces two major challenges. First, ecological data may not conform to traditional methods, and second, professional ecologists often do not receive extensive statistical training. In response to these challenges, the journal Ecology has published many innovative statistical ecology papers that introduced novel modeling methods and provided accessible guides to statistical best practices. In this paper, we reflect on Ecology's history and its role in the emergence of the subdiscipline of statistical ecology, which we define as the study of ecological systems using mathematical equations, probability, and empirical data. We showcase 36 influential statistical ecology papers that have been published in Ecology over the last century and, in so doing, comment on the evolution of the field. As data and computing power continue to increase, we anticipate continued growth in statistical ecology to tackle complex analyses and an expanding role for Ecology to publish innovative and influential papers, advancing the discipline and guiding practicing ecologists.

Agricultural simplification continues to expand at the expense of more diverse forms of agriculture. This simplification, for example, in the form of intensively managed monocultures, poses a risk to keeping the world within safe and just Earth system boundaries. Here, we estimated how agricultural diversification simultaneously affects social and environmental outcomes. Drawing from 24 studies in 11 countries across 2655 farms, we show how five diversification strategies focusing on livestock, crops, soils, noncrop plantings, and water conservation benefit social (e.g., human well-being, yields, and food security) and environmental (e.g., biodiversity, ecosystem services, and reduced environmental externalities) outcomes. We found that applying multiple diversification strategies creates more positive outcomes than individual management strategies alone. To realize these benefits, well-designed policies are needed to incentivize the adoption of multiple diversification strategies in unison.

Foodborne pathogens cause over 9 million illnesses in the United States each year, and Campylobacter from chickens is the largest contributor. Rearing poultry outdoors without the use of antibiotics is becoming an increasingly popular style of farming; however, little is understood about how environmental factors and farm management alter pathogen prevalence. Our survey of 27 farms in California, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, USA, revealed a diversity of management practices used to rear poultry in the open environment. Here, we assess environmental and management factors that impact Campylobacter spp. prevalence in 962 individual chicken fecal samples from 62 flocks over a three-year period. We detected Campylobacter spp. in 250/962 (26.0%) of fecal samples screened, in 69.4% (43/62) of flocks, and on 85.2% (23/27) of farms. We found that Campylobacter spp. prevalence was predicted to increase in poultry on farms with higher average wind speeds in the seven days preceding sampling; on farms embedded in more agricultural landscapes; and in flocks typified by younger birds, more rotations, higher flock densities, and the production of broilers. Collectively, our results suggest that farms in areas with higher wind speeds and more surrounding agriculture face greater risk of Campylobacter spp. introduction into their flocks.

Consumption of contaminated produce remains a leading cause of foodborne illness. Increasingly, growers are altering agricultural practices and farm environments to manage food-safety hazards, but these changes often result in substantial economic, social, and environmental costs. Here, we present a comprehensive evidence synthesis evaluating the efficacy of soil, non-crop vegetation, animal, landscape, and irrigation water management strategies aimed at reducing produce-safety risk in North America. We systematically summarized findings from 78 peer-reviewed papers on the effect of 21 management practices on the prevalence, abundance, or survival of four foodborne pathogens (i.e., E. coli, Salmonella spp., Listeria spp ., and Campylobacter spp .), resulting in 113 summaries. We then organized a 30-member expert panel, who used these summaries to evaluate the impact of each practice on food-safety outcomes. While more than half of the practices were too understudied to confidently evaluate their impact on food safety, the panel did identify several practices that were associated with reduced preharvest food-safety risks, including not using raw manure, separating crop and livestock production, and choosing low-risk irrigation sources. The panel also identified practices that appear ineffective at reducing food-safety risks, such as the removal of non-crop vegetation. Overall, these findings provide insights into the food-safety impacts of agricultural and land management practices that growers, auditors, and extension personnel can use to co-manage produce preharvest environments for food safety and other aims.

Peer review is central to the scientific process and scientists' career advancement, but bias at various stages of the review process disadvantages some authors. Here we use peer review data from 312,740 biological sciences manuscripts across 31 studies to (1) examine evidence for differential peer review outcomes based on author demographics, (2) evaluate the efficacy of solutions to reduce bias and (3) describe the current landscape of peer review policies for 541 ecology and evolution journals. We found notably worse review outcomes (for example, lower overall acceptance rates) for authors whose institutional affiliations were in Asia, for authors whose country's primary language is not English and in countries with relatively low Human Development Indices. We found few data evaluating efficacy of interventions outside of reducing gender bias through double-blind review or diversifying reviewer/editorial boards. Despite evidence for review outcome gaps based on author demographics, few journals currently implement policies intended to mitigate bias (for example, 15.9% of journals practised double-blind review and 2.03% had reviewer guidelines that mentioned social justice issues). The lack of demographic equity signals an urgent need to better understand and implement evidence-based bias mitigation strategies.

Generalist predators can enhance biological control by filling unique niches and complementing other natural enemies, or disrupt it by preying upon other predators and parasitoids, complicating their net value for biological control. We searched for evidence of complementarity and/or interference between native (primarily Eriopis chilensis and E. eschscholtzi) and exotic (primarily Hippodamia variegata and Harmonia axyridis) lady beetles attacking aphids in alfalfa (Medicago sativa) fields near Santiago, Chile. Across 60 fields and three growing seasons, exotic lady beetle adults and larvae reached peak abundance relatively earlier in the growing season than the natives. Furthermore, exotic lady beetle peaks aligned more closely with aphid peak abundance than did native lady beetle peaks. Abundances of native lady beetle adults and larvae were weakly positively correlated with those of exotics, and peak aphid densities were generally lowest in fields where native and non-native lady beetle adults were similarly abundant. Therefore, we did not see evidence of strong interference between exotics and natives. Natural-agricultural habitat edges reduced native, but not exotic, larval lady beetle lag behind aphid peaks and was associated with greater lady beetle and lower aphid densities. Moreover, farms embedded in landscapes with greater natural habitat cover supported more exotic, but not native, lady beetles, and increased the lag between larval lady beetles and aphids for natives but not exotics. These findings support the idea that farms embedded within mosaics of natural and agricultural habitats may provide greater interaction potential between native lady beetles and aphid pests on farms as they move across the landscape, leading to greater top -down control. In contrast, exotic lady beetle lags were unaffected by landscape composition or configuration, but their greater densities in farms surrounded by more natural habitats might reflect a 'concentration effect' whereby exotic lady beetle abundance becomes concentrated in the agricultural habitats that they prefer. Our findings suggest that some lady beetles introduced for biocontrol may be better adapted to intensively managed habitats than natives, possibly leading to spatiotemporal complementarity between native and exotic lady beetles.

Farming systems that support locally diverse agricultural production and high levels of biodiversity are in rapid decline, despite evidence of their benefits for climate, environmental health, and food security. Yet, agricultural policies, financial incentives, and market concentration increasingly constrain the viability of diversified farming systems. Here, we present a conceptual framework to identify novel processes that pro-mote the emergence and sustainability of diversified farming systems, using three real-world examples where farming communities have found pathways to diversification despite major structural constraints. By applying our framework to analyze these bright spots in the United States, Brazil, and Malawi, we identify two distinct pathways-network and institutional-to diversification. These pathways emerge through align-ment of factors related to social and ecological structure (policies, institutions, and environmental conditions) and agency (values, collective action, and management decisions). We find that, when network and institu-tional pathways operate in tandem, the potential to scale up diversification across farms and landscapes in-creases substantially.

Context To date, managing honey bees and wild bees within crop fields remains challenging. Landscape structure is often overlooked when studying the pollination contribution of honey bees. Increasing our understanding on how to predict honey bee visitation in crops is crucial for sustainable management of agroecosystems. Objectives With this study we investigated which landscape and field-level variables determine honey bee and wild bee visitation, and whether honey bee or wild bee visitation influence crop pollination. Methods Sixteen highbush blueberry fields were surveyed for honey bees, wild bees, and crop pollination in Washington, USA. Additionally, within a radius of 1000 m around each field all honey bee hives were located and the surrounding landscape was characterized. Results Honey bee hive numbers in the landscape positively correlate with the proportion of blueberry in the landscape. Honey bee visitation was best predicted by landscape-level hive density within a radius of 1000 m, whereas semi-natural habitat and field-level hive density did not impact honey bee visitation. The amount of semi-natural habitat and blueberry within a radius of 1000 m had a positive and negative impact, respectively, on wild bee visitation. Honey bee visitation had a positive effect on blueberry seed set. Conclusion We conclude that honey bee visitation is determined by the number of honey bee hives in the surrounding landscape. Hence, field-level hive density recommendations miss contributions from other hives in the landscape. Furthermore, semi-natural habitat did not impact honey bee visitation and contributes to diversifying pollinator diets and provides wild bee habitat.

BACKGROUNDGeneralist predators that kill and eat other natural enemies can weaken biological control. However, pest suppression can be disrupted even if actual intraguild predation is infrequent, if predators reduce their foraging to lower their risk of being killed. In turn, predator-predator interference might be frequent when few other prey are available, but less common when herbivorous and detritus-feeding prey are plentiful. We used molecular gut-content analysis to track consumption of the predatory bug Geocoris sp. by the larger intraguild predator Nabis sp., in organic and conventional potato (Solanum tuberosum) fields.RESULTSWe found that higher densities of both aphids and thrips, two common herbivores, correlated with higher probability of detecting intraguild predation. Perhaps, Nabis foraging for these herbivores also encountered and ate more Geocoris. Surprisingly, likelihood of intraguild predation was not strongly linked to densities of either Nabis or Geocoris, or farming system, suggesting a greater importance for prey than predator community structure. Intriguingly, we found evidence that Geocoris fed more often on the detritus-feeding fly Scaptomyza pallida with increasing predator evenness. This would be consistent with Geocoris shifting to greater foraging on the ground, where S. pallida would be relatively abundant, in the face of greater risk of intraguild predation.CONCLUSIONOverall, our findings suggest that while herbivorous prey may heighten intraguild predation of Geocoris in the foliage, detritivores might support a shift to safer foraging on the ground. This provides further evidence that prey abundance and diversity can act to either heighten or relax predator-predator interference, depending on prey species identity and predator behavior.

Sustainable agroecosystems provide adequate food while supporting environmental and human wellbeing and are a key part of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Some strategies to promote sustainability include reducing inputs, substituting conventional crops with genetically modified (GM) alternatives, and using organic production. Here, we leveraged global databases covering 121 countries to determine which farming strategies—the amount of inputs per area (fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation), GM crops, and percent agriculture in organic production—are most correlated with 12 sustainability metrics recognized by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Using quantile regression, we found that countries with higher Human Development Indices (HDI) (including education, income, and lifespan), higher-income equality, lower food insecurity, and higher cereal yields had the most organic production and inputs. However, input-intensive strategies were associated with greater agricultural greenhouse gas emissions. In contrast, countries with more GM crops were last on track to meeting the SDG of reduced inequalities. Using a longitudinal analysis spanning 2004–2018, we found that countries were generally decreasing inputs and increasing their share of agriculture in organic production. Also, in disentangling correlation vs. causation, we hypothesize that a country's development is more likely to drive changes in agricultural strategies than vice versa. Altogether, our correlative analyses suggest that countries with greater progress toward the SDGs of no poverty, zero hunger, good health and wellbeing, quality education, decent work, economic growth, and reduced inequalities had the highest production of organic agriculture and, to a lesser extent, intensive use of inputs.

Bactericera gobica is the major pest of Goji berry plants and causes severe damage. Psyllids mainly use the antennal sensilla to recognize olfactory cues necessary to find host plants and mates. However, the structure and function of the antenna and the antennal sensilla of B. gobica remains previously unexplored. Here, we identify the external and internal morphology of the antennal sensilla of B. gobica using both scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). We found seven types of sensilla on the filiform antennae, including apical setae (LAS, SAS), sensilla basiconica (SB1, SB2), sensilla campaniform (SCA), sensilla chaetica (ChS1, ChS2), cavity sensilla (CvS1, CvS2), antennal rhinaria (AR1, AR2), and sensilla trichodea (ST). Five of these sensilla types-apical setae, sensilla basiconica, sensilla chaetica, cavity sensilla, and antennal rhinaria-may have olfactory functions based on their porous surfaces and internal dendritic outer segments (DOS). We also found several differences between the two sexes of B. gobica in the sensilla array and internal structure. ChS and DOS in the protrusions of AR were more abundant in males than females. Altogether, we comprehensively revealed the fine structure and probable function of B. gobica antennae and identified differences in the distribution and structure between psyllid sexes. Our findings provide important insights for future studies on defining the olfactory function of psyllid antenna using electrophysiological methods.

Growing demand for poultry meat and eggs labeled as organic, cage free, or pasture raised has increased the number of producers that manage chickens outdoors. In these open environments, there are likely diverse enteric parasites sustained by fecal-oral transmission or passage through intermediate invertebrate hosts (e.g., worms and insects) that chickens consume. Enteric parasites can reduce chicken health and productivity, but there are few published data describing the identities or prevalence of these parasites on farms that use open environments in the United States. We surveyed 27 poultry farms with open environments that were situated across a wide geographic range, including California, Oregon, Idaho, and Washington. These farms did not use anticoccidial drugs, coccidia vaccines, or parasiticides. Flock size, enclosure area, flock density, flock rotation frequency, and average flock age were highly correlated for all the farms in this study. We analyzed how enclosure size and flock rotations per year (which represented two axes of variation in management) correlated with prevalence of five observed parasite taxa at the farm level. Across all flocks, we detected by fecal flotation Eimeria spp. (95% flocks), Ascaridia galli (69%), Heterakis gallinarum (52%), Capillaria spp. (39%), Strongyloides avium (13%), tapeworm species (29%), Cryptosporidium spp. (3%), and Dispharynx nasuta (1%). Eighty-five percent of samples were coinfected with two or more parasite taxa. Sixty-seven percent of farms raised only layer chicken breeds, 4% raised only broiler breeds, and 30% raised both layer and broiler breeds. The average age of the broiler flocks was 11.0 wk (±1.1 SE), and flocks were moved 54.7 (±17.9) times annually to new locations in pastures (hereafter, "rotation"). Layer flocks averaged 84.9 (±7.67) wk of age and were moved less often on farms being rotated 20.0 (±6.05) times per year. Generalized linear mixed models indicated that for every 1 m2 increase in enclosure size, the odds of detecting Eimeria spp. increased by 0.03%. Furthermore, for every additional rotation per year, the odds of detecting A. galli decreased by 1.3%. For every additional rotation per year, the odds of detecting tapeworm species increased by 2.2%. We found no evidence that flock spatial management affected prevalence of the other parasites observed on the farms. Farming practices and parasite responses in these systems are highly varied, which makes it difficult to identify potential management interventions for reducing these infections.

Photo1. Birds may cause foodborne illness if they deposit pathogens on crops via feces. Photo credit: Olivia Smith. Photo 2. Co-author Elissa Olimpi holds a California Scrub-Jay captured for the study. The jay’s feces were tested for foodborne pathogens. Photo credit: Daniel S. Karp. Photo 3. We found that birds associated with cattle feedlots, like the invasive Rock Pigeons depicted here, posed the highest risks to food safety. Photo credit: Olivia Smith. Photo 4. We found that insectivorous birds posed lower risks to food safety than plant-eating birds. Species like this Violet-green Swallow can be attracted to the farm by installing nest boxes and can help to control crop pests. Photo credit: Olivia Smith. Photo 5. Our results suggest that separating livestock from crop production and working to support canopy-foraging birds may be a good way to harness the benefits of birds without incurring large food safety costs. Planting tree rows around crops like the ones shown in the photograph may be one way to do so. Photo credit: Olivia Smith. These photographs illustrate the article “A trait-based framework for predicting foodborne pathogen risk from wild birds” by Smith et al. published in Ecological Applications. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2523.

Birds play many roles within agroecosystems including as consumers of crops and pests, carriers of pathogens and beloved icons. Birds are also rapidly declining across North America, in part due to agricultural intensification. Thus, it is imperative to identify how to manage agroecosystems to best support birds for multi-functional outcomes (e.g. crop production and conservation). Both the average amounts of services/disservices provided and their temporal stability are important for effective farm planning. Here, we conducted point count surveys for 4 years across 106 locations on 27 diversified farms in Washington and Oregon, USA. We classified birds as ecosystem service or disservice providers using indices spanning supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural services/disservices. We then examined service/disservice index pairwise correlations and assessed the relative importance of local, farm and landscape complexity on the average and temporal stability of avian service/disservice provider indices. Generally, service provider indices (production benefitting birds, grower appreciation and conservation scores) were positively correlated with each other. Foodborne pathogen risk, grower disapproval and identity/iconic value indices were also positively correlated with each other. However, the crop damaging bird index generally had low correlations with other indices. Farms that implemented more conservation-friendly management practices generally had higher average service provider indices, but farm management did not impact disservice provider indices, except for grower disapproval. Average disservice provider indices were lower on farms in complex landscapes. Local vertical vegetation complexity tended to increase the temporal stability of service provider indices but did not affect the disservice provider indices. Greater landscape complexity was generally associated with increased temporal stability of service and disservice provider indices. Increased landscape complexity may stabilize bird communities by increasing bird community evenness, which in turn, positively predicted temporal stability of all service/disservice provider indices. Policy implications. Our results suggest that farmers can effectively manage their farms to harness ecosystem services from birds through farm diversification. Disservices provided by birds, however, appear to be most negatively impacted by landscape-level complexity. Thus, greater incentives for farmers to increase semi-natural cover at the landscape scale are likely necessary to achieve multifunctional outcomes for conservation and agriculture.