Soil erosion is the main driving force of several devastating natural hazards in the complex mountainous terrain of the Himalayas. The significant impact of soil erosion includes poor soil productivity and soil type, degraded water quality, land degradation, sedimentation, siltation and ultimately biodiversity losses. Hence, it is necessary to assess soil erosion and prioritize the susceptibility regions for effective control measures to serve as baseline data. The present study attempted to analyze the various morphometric, forest, and soil type parameters through Geographical Information System (GIS) and Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) techniques for the identification of soil erosion susceptible regions in forest-imparted Kempty watershed, Mussoorie (Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India). The watershed has been divided into four sub-watersheds (SWS1, SWS2, SWS3, and SWS4) using topographic maps (1:50,000 scale and 20 m contours) and ASTER DEM (30 m resolution). Ranking sub-watersheds that significantly influence erosion has been done based on the integrated analysis of morphometric parameters with forest cover, slope, soil, and hypsometric parameters using MCA. Ranks were integrated with MCA to give in four major classes, i.e., classified from 1 to 4 in which, rank 1 indicates the highest priority; while 4 indicates the lowest priority. Notably, MCA priority ranks depicted that SWS4 has the lowest Cp value (2.27) followed by SWS1 (2.36) suggesting very high priority; whereas, the highest Cp value (2.73) of SWS2 and SWS3 (2.52) showed low priority and medium priority, respectively. The prioritization findings identified as a soil erosion-susceptible area can be recommended for adequate control measures for soil erosion and to reduce surface runoff.

Understanding how tropical forests respond to changing climatic regimes is critical for sustaining ecological resilience. This study evaluated temporal changes in tree regeneration across eight Preservation Plots in Central India using size class distribution (SCD) slopes between 1991 and 2021. Changes in slope (ΔSCD) were used to assess regeneration trends across 101 tree species and to examine whether these trends differed among functional trait groups. Trait-based comparisons showed that light-demanding and early-successional species generally exhibited positive or less negative ΔSCD values, whereas shade-tolerant and some late-successional species maintained relatively more negative values. However, regression and mixed-effects models explained only a small proportion of the variation in ΔSCD, indicating that functional traits alone provide limited predictive power. Climatic analyses showed significant decadal variation in temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity across the preservation plots, with temporal effects stronger than site effects. These climatic results provide important environmental context for interpreting regeneration patterns, although direct trait–climate effects require cautious interpretation. The findings suggest that combining SCD-based monitoring with functional trait information can help identify species groups requiring closer monitoring and site-specific management attention under changing climatic conditions.

The escalating global threat of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), particularly among biofilm-forming bacterial pathogens, has necessitated the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Trachyspermum ammi hydrosol has exhibited a range of bioactive properties. However, its potential as a dual-action antimicrobial agent targeting both planktonic and biofilm-associated microorganisms remains underexplored. This study aimed to explore the antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of T. ammi hydrosol (TaHy) against two major Gram-positive pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes), and elucidate its mechanism of action based on cell. Additionally, we aimed to evaluate in vivo acute toxicity and biosafety. Antimicrobial activities were assessed using DDA, MIC, and time-kill assays. Antibiofilm activity was evaluated using a crystal violet method, and biofilm morphology was examined by microscopy. TaHy demonstrated efficient inhibition in hydrophobicity and EPS production, along with alterations in membrane integrity, including bacteriolysis and protein and nucleic acid release. Our results showed that the MIC of TaHy was 0.625 mg/mL against both pathogens and that it significantly inhibited and eradicated biofilm formation at sub-MIC values, as confirmed by SEM and fluorescence microscopy. TaHy effectively inhibited hydrophobicity and EPS production, reducing the virulence factors of pathogens to 1/8 MIC. Consequently, in vivo acute oral toxicity tests revealed no adverse effects at doses up to 2000 mg/kg body weight of hydrosol concentrate. These findings revealed that TaHy has robust antimicrobial and antibiofilm capability against S. aureus and L. monocytogenes.

Studying the changes in soil qualities induced by diverse land uses enables steps to be implemented that limit the risk of future harmful consequences. This study aimed to assess soil physical attributes and infiltration rates for various types of forest land uses in a Kempty watershed of the Garhwal Himalaya. The land use types selected were oak forest (OF), pine forest (PF), and mixed forest (MF). A sample survey was conducted in 40 (10 × 10 m) quadrats to collect soil samples and measure infiltration rates for each forest type. Soil samples were collected from 0-30 cm depths, and soil bulk density, organic carbon, texture, and moisture were analysed. Our findings revealed that OF had higher bulk density (BD) (1.28 ± 0.08 gm cm3), organic carbon (OC) (30.63 ± 0.82 mg kg-1), and soil moisture content (37.37 ± 1.35 %) than PF and MF. Infiltration rates (IR) were considerably higher (4.23 ± 0.17 cm hr-1) in OF compared to PF (3.37 ± 0.23cm hr-1) and MF (3.74 ± 0.18 cm hr-1). Although the infiltration rate in the MF was statistically at par with the OF, PF had the lowest infiltration rates. The higher BD was observed during the summer and OC during the winter. The higher IR (9.29 ± 0.28 cm hr-1) was observed during May. Higher soil characteristics and infiltration rates in OF may be linked to the accumulation of more leaf litter on the forest floor and a higher decomposition rate than in PF and MF.

Concept of soil erodibility originated from efforts to identify specific soil characteristics that influence variations in soil resistance to erosion. Soil erodibility refers to the susceptibility of soil to erosion. Various methods can be used to assess soil erodibility, including measuring physiochemical characteristics, scouring experiments, simulated rainfall experiments, plot studies, and wind tunnel tests. To determine soil erodibility, researchers have utilized nomograms and soil erosion models. These studies are characterized by their applications, objectives, importance, methods of use, and research locations. Additionally, an analysis summarizing the "what," "why," "where," and "how" of soil erodibility has been conducted. Soil erodibility remains a key factor in environmental management and conservation practices. This review aims to enhance understanding of the impacts of soil erosion through studies on soil erodibility. It also emphasizes the scope and significance of investigating soil erodibility, broadening our comprehension of the mechanisms involved and developing improved methods for measuring and calculating soil erodibility. This review suggests that the USLE NOMO model is the most widely accepted and utilized method and provides reliable results for assessing soil erodibility.

Malaria, caused by Plasmodium falciparum, presents significant challenges for treatment due to the parasite's complex life cycle and increasing multi-drug resistance. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are the current standard treatment, resistance development necessitates the exploration of new therapeutic targets. Recent evidence suggests that targeting oxidative stress to arrest blood stage ring to schizont growth progression in Plasmodium could offer a novel approach to combat drug-resistant malaria. Phytomolecules have been recognized for their potential to modulate oxidative stress with artemisinin derivatives. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of formononetin (FMT), a natural isoflavonoid, alone and in combination with artesunate (ART) against multidrug-resistant P. falciparum (K1) strain and to decipher the underlying mechanism of action. The study presents compelling evidence demonstrating the anti-plasmodial action of FMT alone (IC50 value 212 mu M) and synergistic interaction (FICI 0.13) with ART at a 1:1 ratio against the K1 strain of P. falciparum. The combination treatment affected the progression of P. falciparum from the ring stage to the schizont and showed the effect at asexual erythrocytic stages. Moreover, the combination resulted in a notable increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, both independently and in combination with ART. In combination with ART, FMT effectively modulated the total glutathione (GSH) level. Moreover, FMT and ART demonstrated the ability to induce apoptosis-like death of parasites, as evidenced by the Lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde-MDA) and DNA fragmentation (TUNEL) levels. These results indicate that FMT could potentially ameliorate the growth of multidrug-resistant malaria parasites, enhance the effects of ART, and be suitable for developing anti-plasmodial agents from a cheap and sustainable source.

Annona squamosa L. is widely cultivated for its edible fruits in India. After the fruit pulp is removed, the peel that remains is a municipal waste. The purpose of the study was to examine the chemical and biological activity profiles of A. squamosa fruit waste’s hydrodistilled essential oil (ASEO) and supercritical carbon dioxide extract (ASSFE). GC-FID, GC-MS, NMR, and HRMS techniques were employed to analyse the extracts, and in-vitro models were used to assess their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and dermal irritation activity. In all, 105 components were identified. The main components of the ASEO were spathulenol (27.5

In this study, a global response analysis was performed to explore the mechanism of action of Usnic acid and its synergy with Norfloxacin, a well-known quinolone antibiotic to which MRSA clinical isolates showed resistance (MIC, 500 µg/mL). A microdilution assay, a growth kinetics analysis, a microscopic analysis, and cell-based assays consistently showed that Usnic acid possesses strong anti-staphylococcal activity (MIC, 7.8 µg/mL), causes cell leakage, modulates efflux pump activity, and synergizes with Norfloxacin against the multi-drug-resistant clinical isolate MRSA 2071. Whole-cell proteome profiling using gel-free proteomics-based nano-LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS revealed several proteins whose expression was significantly modulated by Usnic acid and Norfloxacin alone or in combination. Usnic acid downregulated the abundance of RNA polymerase subunits (RpoB and RpoC), carbamoyl phosphate synthase large subunit (PyrAB), chaperone (GroEL), and adenylosuccinate synthetase (PurA). Interestingly, proteins found to be upregulated in the presence of Usnic acid and Norfloxacin included oxidative-stress-related proteins such as peroxidase (Tpx), alkyl hydroperoxide reductase (AphC), and general stress protein (UspA). This study clearly shows that Usnic acid affects numerous cellular targets and can potentiate the action of Norfloxacin. Furthermore, an in vivo study showed that UA at low concentrations prevents body weight gain, but changes in other tested toxicological parameters were found to be within normal limits. Thus, UA at low doses appears to be a promising candidate for repurposing old antibiotics through combination therapy against MRSA infections.

Predicting river discharge is essential for managing water resources, contributing to the economy, and minimising associated hydrologic risks. Despite the manifold importance of a sound understanding of river discharge, the rugged geography of Bhutan makes installing sophisticated water discharge measuring equipment challenging. Using an integrated flood analysis system - a non-structural method - is used to calculate the river discharge of the Punatshangchu River Basin. The two-tank configuration hydrologic model was applied through parameterisation, calibration, and validation and was forced using rainfall data. The maximum observed discharge was 1,532 m(3)/s and the minimum was 58 m(3)/s. The validated simulation model showed a maximum discharge of 1,522 m3/s and a minimum discharge of 138 m3/s, respectively. The simulated result overestimates the low flow and underestimates the high flow. A Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency of 0.7626 was achieved, indicating a satisfactory level of estimation. The study found that the IFAS model can predict river discharge in a data-scarce environment.

Plants are known to be the natural factory for the production of flavor chemicals. Essential oils comprised of aldehyde as a functional group are potent in deciphering flavor effects in beverages and fresh and prepared food products. In the majority, these are manufactured through synthetic routes, resulting in high product carbon footprints or CO2 equivalents in total greenhouse gas emission. FDA has banned some of the synthetic flavor chemicals due to the health hazards associated with them. However, consumer's preference for natural is at stake due to the absence of quantitative traceability tools. The accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) analysis revealed a distinction between natural and fossil-derived citral and its blends in Cymbopogon essential oils. The plant-derived citral contained a percent modern carbon (pMC) value in the range of 99-100 %. In contrast, the fossil fuel-derived citral showed zero pMC. Similarly, blends of Cymbopogon oils with 30-50 % (w/w) of fossil origin citral contained pMC equivalent to the proportions of modern carbon. These results showed the usefulness of AMS in quantifying the amount of 14C associated with flavor ingredients. Besides, acute oral toxicity data revealed Cymbopogon oils as the safe flavoring substance at the highest 2000 mg/kg body weight dose in Swiss albino mice.

Introduction: Malaria control is hindered by drug-resistant parasites, leading to a shortage of effective drugs. There is a need to find new, better antimalarial drug. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) are more accessible and cheaper alternative for combating resistance in the treatment of malaria, therefore the anti-malarial efficacy of root extracts and isolated phytomolecules from Glycyrrhiza glabra L was assessed. Methods: The anti-plasmodial potential of root extracts and isolated phytomolecules from Glycyrrhiza glabra L. was assessed using the Giemsa staining method. In- vivo, antimalarial efficacy was evaluated by conducting a four-day suppression test in a mouse model. The mechanistic studies of ISL were carried out using caspase-like activity, mitochondrial membrane potential, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay. Further, proteomics analysis was carried out by LC-MS/MS. The interaction of the combinations was evaluated using the fixed ratio method by calculating the fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC). Results: Extracts of G. glabra contain Phytomolecule(s) with moderate anti-plasmodial activity against multidrug-resistant strain (K1) of P. falciparum. Isoliquiritigenin (ISL) exhibited a significant reduction in parasitemia, resulting in an enhancement of the mean survival time in Plasmodium yoelii nigeriensis infected mice. ISL showed potent activity with no cytotoxic effect and increased caspase-3 activity, leading increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and loss of mitochondrial potential. ISL also displayed synergy with chloroquine, glabridin and liquiritigenin against multi-drug-resistant P. falciparum. Discussion: The present study found ISL to be a potential phytomolecule of G. glabra. The study explored the mechanism of action of ISL and suggested its suitability for further study in managing drug-resistant malaria.

The study characterized the temporal and spatial variability in greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes (CO2, CH4, and N2O) between December 2020 and November 2021 and their regulating drivers in the subtropical wetland of the Indian Himalayan foothill. Five distinct habitats (M1—sloppy surface at swamp forest, M2—plain surface at swamp forest, M3—swamp surface with small grasses, M4—marshy land with dense macrophytes, and M5—marshy land with sparse macrophytes) were studied. We conducted in situ measurements of GHG fluxes, microclimate (AT, ST, and SMC(v/v)), and soil properties (pH, EC, N, P, K, and SOC) in triplicates in all the habitat types. Across the habitats, CO2, CH4, and N2O fluxes ranged from 125 to 536 mg m−2 h−1, 0.32 to 28.4 mg m−2 h−1, and 0.16 to 3.14 mg m−2 h−1, respectively. The habitats (M3 and M5) exhibited higher GHG fluxes than the others. The CH4 flux followed the summer > autumn > spring > winter hierarchy. However, CO2 and N2O fluxes followed the summer > spring > autumn > winter. CO2 fluxes were primarily governed by ST and SOC. However, CH4 and N2O fluxes were mainly regulated by ST and SMC(v/v) across the habitats. In the case of N2O fluxes, soil P and EC also played a crucial role across the habitats. AT was a universal driver controlling all GHG fluxes across the habitats. The results emphasize that long-term GHG flux monitoring in sub-tropical Himalayan Wetlands has become imperative to accurately predict the near-future GHG fluxes and their changing nature with the ongoing climate change.

The renewed interest in the bioprospecting of medicinal plants to treat malaria for the endemic population at times of resistance and non-availability of expensive drugs holds importance. As a part of our ongoing bioprospection activity, the present study aimed to illustrate the antimalarial activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine-modulating effects of leaf extracts of Manilkara hexandra. The anti-plasmodial and antimalarial activities were carried out through chloroquine-resistant strain (K1) of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei K-173 infected mice, respectively. Further, the observations were substantiated with β-haematin formation, reactive oxygen species, and cytotoxicity. Amongst the four extracts (hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and methanol), the hexane and methanol leaf extracts showed potent activity against P. falciparum with IC50 values of 18.26 ± 2.38 µg/mL and 20.20 ± 3.70 µg/mL respectively. Both the extracts were found to inhibit the β-hematin formation with an IC50 (91.64 ± 12.49 µg/mL and 100.00 ± 14.51 µg/mL), respectively. In addition, both extracts increased intracellular ROS levels to 84.06 ± 3.13

Abstract Sub-tropic Himalayan wetlands play a critical role in regional greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes and budgets, consequently influencing climate change. Nevertheless, the magnitude, trends, and drivers regulating GHGs fluxes in the sub-tropic wetlands of the Indian Himalayan foothill remain uncertain. Herein, we characterized temporal and spatial GHGs fluxes (CO2, CH4, and N2O) between December 2020 and November 2021 to identify patterns and regulating drivers in the subtropical wetland of the Indian Himalayan foothill. The wetland was divided into five habitats (M1-sloppy surface at swamp forest; M2-plain surface at swamp forest; M3-swamp surface with small grasses; M4-marshy land with dense macrophytes and M5-marshy land with sparse macrophytes) for in-situ measurement of GHGs fluxes (CO2, CH4, and N2O), microclimate (air and soil temperature, soil moisture), soil properties (pH, EC, N, P, K, and SOC). Across the habitats, CO2, CH4, and N2O fluxes ranged between 125.15 to 536.00 mg m− 2 h− 1, 0.32 to 28.35 mg m− 2 h− 1 and 0.16 to 3.14 mg m− 2 h− 1, respectively. The habitats (M3 and M5) exhibited higher GHGs fluxes (CO2, CH4, and N2O) than counterpart habitats. The highest CO2 fluxes were reported in summer, followed by Spring, Autumn, and Winter. However, higher CH4 and N2O flux in summer, followed by Autumn, Spring, and Winter. The soil temperature and SOC were reported as crucial drivers regulating CO2 fluxes than soil moisture. However, soil temperature and moisture equally regulated CH4 and N2O fluxes across the habitats. N2O fluxes were regulated by soil phosphorus and EC across the habitats. The air temperature was a universal driver controlling all GHGs fluxes across the habitats. We urged that long-term GHG fluxes monitoring and identifying drivers across spatiotemporal scales are required to accurately predict GHGs fluxes and budget to understand the warming potential of GHGs in Indian Himalayan wetlands.

Background: Malaria remains one of the major health concerns, especially in tropical countries. Although drugs such as artemisinin-based combinations are efficient for treating Plasmodium falciparum, the growing threat from multi-drug resistance has become a major challenge. Thus, there is a constant need to identify and validate new combinations to sustain current disease control strategies to overcome the challenge of drug resistance in the malaria parasites. To meet this demand, liquiritigenin (LTG) has been found to positively interact in combination with the existing clinically used drug chloroquine (CQ), which has become unfunctional due to acquired drug resistance. Purpose: To evaluate the best interaction between LTG and CQ against CQ-resistant strain of P. falciparum. Furthermore, the in vivo antimalarial efficacy and possible mechanism of action of the best combination was also assessed. Methods: The in vitro anti-plasmodial potential of LTG against CQ-resistant strain K1 of P. falciparum was tested using Giemsa staining method. The behaviour of the combinations was evaluated using the fix ratio method and evaluated the interaction of LTG and CQ by calculating the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI). Oral toxicity study was carried out in a mice model. In vivo antimalarial efficacy of LTG alone and in combination with CQ was evaluated using a four-day suppression test in a mouse model. The effect of LTG on CQ accumulation was measured using HPLC and the rate of alkalinization of the digestive vacuole. Cytosolic Ca2+ level, mitochondrial membrane potential, caspase-like activity, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, and Annexin V Apoptosis assay to assess anti-plasmodial potential. Proteomics analysis was evaluated by LC-MS/MS analysis. Results: LTG possesses anti-plasmodial activity on its own and it showed to be an adjuvant of CQ. In in vitro studies, LTG showed synergy with CQ only in the ratio (CQ: LTG-1:4) against CQ-resistant strain (K1) of P. falciparum. Interestingly, in vivo studies, LTG in combination with CQ showed higher chemo-suppression and enhanced mean survival time at much lower concentrations compared to individual doses of LTG and CQ against CQ-resistant strain (N67) of Plasmodium yoelli nigeriensis. LTG was found to increase the CQ accumulation into digestive vacuole, reducing the rate of alkalinization, in turn increasing cytosolic Ca2+ level, loss of mitochon-drial potential, caspase-3 activity, DNA damage and externalization of phosphatidylserine of the membrane (in vitro). These observations indicate the involvement of apoptosis-like death of P. falciparum that might be due to the accumulation of CQ. Conclusion: LTG showed synergy with CQ in the ratio LTG: CQ, 4:1) in vitro and was able to curtail the IC50 of CQ and LTG. Interestingly, in vivo in combination with CQ, LTG showed higher chemo-suppression as well as enhanced mean survival time at a much lower concentrations of both the partners as compared to an individual dose of CQ and LTG. Thus, synergistic drug combination offers the possibility to enhance CQ efficacy in chemotherapy.

Rutin (3, 3', 4' 5 and 7-pentahydroxyflavone-3-rhamnoglucoside) is a flavonoid glycoside, found in many edible plants such as buckwheat and berries. Severe malaria is an inflammatory response triggered by oxidative stress that results in multi-organ pathologies and a high mortality rate in children and pregnant women worldwide. Rutin is recommended as a food supplement for the treatment of various diseases due to its anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, which prompted us to investigate its ameliorative effects in severe malaria pathogenesis against oxidative stress and inflammatory response using in vitro and in vivo bioassays. Rutin was examined in this work for its anti-plasmodial activity against chloroquine-sensitive and resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains, as well as its anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory activity against LPS-stimulated macrophage cells. The in vitro data were subsequently verified in mice fed orally with rutin alone or in combination with chloroquine in Plasmodium berghei-induced malaria pathogenesis. The anti-plasmodial and anti-inflammatory properties of rutin were demonstrated in in vitro results. Apart from its anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects in malaria pathogenesis, in vivo efficacy studies indicated that oral treatment with rutin reduced parasitaemia, increased mean survival time, and restored haemoglobin and glucose levels in mice at lower dose. Interestingly, both rutin and chloroquine demonstrated synergy in in vitro and in vivo experiments. The findings of the present study thus highlighted the suitability of rutin for further study in the management of drug resistant malaria in combination with standard anti-malarial drugs.

Wetlands are emitters of greenhouse gases. However, many of the wetlands remain understudied (like temperate, boreal, and high-altitude wetlands), which constrains the global budgets. Himalayan foothill is one such data-deficient area. The present study reported (for the first time) the greenhouse gas fluxes (CO2, CH4, N2O, and H2O vapor) from the soils of the Nakraunda wetland of Uttarakhand in India during the post-monsoon season (October 2020 to January 2021). The sampling points covered six different types of soil within the wetlands. CO2, CH4, N2O, and H2O vapor emissions ranged from 82.89 to 1052.13 mg m−2 h−1, 0.56 to 2.25 mg m−2 h−1, 0.18 to 0.40 mg m−2 h−1, and 557.96 to 29,397.18 mg m−2 h−1, respectively, during the study period. Except for CO2, the other three greenhouse gas effluxes did not show any spatial variability. Soils close to “swamp proper” emitted substantially higher CO2 than the vegetated soils. Soil temperature exhibited exponential relationships with all the greenhouse gas fluxes, except for H2O vapor. The Q10 values for CO2, CH4, and N2O varied from 3.42 to 4.90, 1.66 to 2.20, and 1.20 to 1.30, respectively. Soil moisture showed positive relationships with all the greenhouse gas fluxes, except for N2O. The fluxes observed from Nakraunda were in parity with global observations. However, this study showed that wetlands experiencing lower temperature regime are also capable of emitting a substantial amount of greenhouse gases and thus, requires more study. Considering the seasonality of greenhouse gas fluxes should improve global wetland emission budgets.

Watersheds in the Lesser Himalayan region are highly susceptible to natural hazards, particularly those instigated by action and movement of water, such as soil erosion, flood, and mass movements of lands. Hilly watersheds with diversified land use and fragile ecosystems are responsible for accelerating soil erosion. Soil erosion is one of the most implicit hazards as it degrades water and soil quality in a watershed. The study prioritizes the soil erosion-susceptible zones in the Tons river watershed (India) in the Lesser Himalayan region. The interrelationships and role of morphometry, soil quality, slope, and land use together as four components in soil erosion are studied. Remote sensing data and multi-criteria decision method (MCDM) framework has been used to estimate soil erosion susceptibility of sub-watersheds. Results showed that morphometric parameters like elongation ratio and slope of sub-watersheds play a major role in determining the state of erosion.

Assessment of the vulnerability of a watershed to soil erosion is essential for developing management strategies for a watershed. Different approaches are in practice to assess soil erosion vulnerability but lack of data and accessibility of the watersheds in rugged mountainous terrain puts restrictions on using quantitative techniques to assess vulnerability. Hence, multi criteria based qualitative methods using soil, morphological parameters and land use as criteria are being used. The observations from these components generally differ in measurement scale and sample size. The sample size may also not be large enough for using standard quantitative techniques for ranking the subwatersheds. This study addresses the limitation of heterogeneous scales of measurement and small sample sizes to assess the vulnerability using Grey Relational Analysis (GRA). So far, GRA has been used limitedly in some studies to determine few forest functions. There is an absolute lack of information about applying this method in many domains of natural resource management, including watersheds. In the present study, GRA is applied to assess the vulnerability of a watershed in lesser Himalayas to soil erosion by assessing that of subwatersheds constituting the watershed using information derived from remote sensing and field data. Parameters pertaining to Geomorphology, soil erodibility and land use were identified and classified into benefit and defect type based on their contribution towards erosion. Three different components comprising of 21 variables and 21 subwatersheds were taken, and a 21 x 21 matrix was constructed, and data was normalised to make the scale uniform. Out of the total 21 subwatersheds, the subwatersheds most prone to soil erosion were because of their morphometric parameters like low elongation ratio and ruggedness number. The least prone was due to its high value morphometric parameters despite a low presence of forest land use and steep slope. The results indicate that forest area (69.48%) alone is not sufficient for a subwatershed being less vulnerable to soil erosion neither high slope makes a subwatershed highly vulnerable. The suggested method helps to analyse the combined influence of the various components on erosion vulnerability and ranks the different subwatersheds according to their vulnerability towards soil erosion. The study demonstrates that GRA can effectively rank the constituent subwatersheds of a watershed according to their vulnerability to soil erosion, thereby aiding the decision process for watershed conservation and formulation of management strategies.