Bats of the monotypic family Rhinopomatidae occur in a belt of arid regions from Senegal to Bengal, and within this range, one to six species were recognised historically. The recent genetic analysis revealed within the single genus Rhinopoma five lineages and seven sublineages defined by the analysis of nuclear markers and six lineages and ten sublineages by the analysis of mitochondrial markers. Our aim was an analysis of morphologic variation of the genus and the synthesis of its results with a molecular genetic evidence. Our morphometric comparison revealed seven basic morphotypes; five of them corresponded with the genetic partitioning of the genus, being associated with five species, plus two additional morphotypes were separated. The revised taxonomic arrangement of Rhinopomatidae here suggested contains six species, comparing the last review, the existence of one species is rejected and one species is newly described. Most of the species represent well defined morphotypes that correspond to the nuclear DNA, just one morphotype remains defined only morphologically. Three species are considered monotypic and three polytypic with two to three subspecies recognised. The subspecies of two species are defined both morphologically and genetically, while in Rhinopoma cystops morphological evidence did not reveal marked geographical variation.

The family Rhinopomatidae comprises six species of mouse-tailed bats within the genus Rhinopoma, inhabiting arid regions of the Old World from western Africa to Myanmar. While their phylogenetic relationships have been explored through morphology and molecular analyses, many populations still remain insufficiently studied using molecular approaches. This study aims to analyse samples representing all species and populations within the family, employing one mitochondrial and four nuclear genetic markers. These sequences were used to construct phylogenetic trees, estimate divergence times and evaluate biogeographic patterns. Our results revealed the presence of five major genetic lineages within Rhinopoma. Notably, the morphologically distinct East African R. macinnesi was genetically embedded within R. cystops, suggesting synonymisation of the former name and expanding the distribution range of R. cystops southward into eastern Africa. The study also identified greater mitochondrial diversity compared to nuclear markers, uncovering nine mitochondrial lineages across the family, including three polytypic species: R. cystops, R. hardwickii and R. muscatellum. Divergence time estimation placed the family's origin at approximately 45 million years ago. Initial diversification into current species occurred 9.5 million years ago, likely originating in the Arabian Peninsula or Iran, regions that still host the highest diversity of Rhinopoma. This study provides the most comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Rhinopomatidae to date, reducing the recognised species count to five and offering new insights into the evolutionary history and biogeography of this desert-adapted bat family.

Little is known about how zoonotic virus infections manifest in wildlife reservoirs. However, a common health consequence of enteric virus infections is gastrointestinal diseases following a shift in gut microbial composition. The sub-Saharan hipposiderid bat complex has recently emerged to host at least three coronaviruses (CoVs), with Hipposideros caffer D appearing particularly susceptible to Hibecovirus CoV-2B infection. In this study, we complement body condition and infection status data with information about the gut microbial community to understand the health impact of CoV infections in a wild bat population. Of the three CoVs, only infections with the distantly SARS-related Hibecovirus CoV-2B were associated with lower body condition and altered the gut microbial diversity and composition. The gut microbial community of infected bats became progressively less diverse and more dissimilar with infection intensity, arguing for dysbiosis as per the Anna Karenina principle. Putatively beneficial bacteria, such as Alistipes and Christensenella, decreased with infection intensity, while potentially pathogenic bacteria, namely Mycoplasma and Staphylococcus, increased. Infections with enterically replicating viruses may therefore cause changes in body condition and gut dysbiosis with potential negative health consequences even in virus reservoirs. We argue that high-resolution data on multiple health markers, ideally including microbiome information, will provide a more nuanced picture of bat disease ecology.

Bats and rodents have been identified as reservoir hosts of diverse RNA viruses that pose potential risks to humans. However, overall virus prevalence in wildlife and underlying factors determining the zoonotic potential of reservoir-borne viruses remain poorly characterized. Virus detection often relies on the identification of viral nucleotide sequences and may therefore be limited by variable virus concentration, tissue tropism, sample quality, and duration of infection. In this study, we applied a multiplex immunofluorescence assay to examine bat and rodent seroprevalence against 14 different human pathogenic RNA viruses spanning seven virus families ( Coronaviridae, Flaviviridae, Hantaviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Phenuiviridae, Pneumoviridae, Togaviridae ). We retrospectively analyzed 1,135 bat (16 species) and 454 rodent (15 species) blood or transudate specimens collected at 63 sites in seven countries. Tropical bats exhibited notably high rates of seropositivity against certain virus families ( Flaviviridae: 42.8%; Paramyxoviridae: 60.4%; Togaviridae : 7.5%). Multivariable logistic regression models were created to evaluate the association of tropical bat characteristics with seropositivity. Preliminary findings indicate that large colony size, found among species such as Eidolon helvum and Rousettus aegyptiacus , is a risk factor for orthoflavi- and orthorubulavirus infection, consistent with the communal spread of bat-adapted viruses. Author Summary Many animal populations carry viruses that have the potential to spill over to humans and cause severe disease. Despite surveillance efforts, it is logistically challenging to detect virus infections in wildlife, as viruses may have a short duration of infection or unknown routes of transmission. In this study, we examined blood and transudate samples from rodents and bats around the world for antibodies against 14 different viruses known to cause disease in humans. We analyzed the samples via a mosaic chip-based immunofluorescence test, which has the advantage of detecting antibodies against whole-virus antigen. This method allows for broad surveillance, as we would also expect to uncover evidence of past infection with bat- and rodent-adapted viruses that are related, but not identical, to known human pathogens. We detected antibodies against all seven virus families we examined, with especially high detection rates of antibodies in tropical bats. We used the results to construct multivariable logistic regression models of tropical bat seroprevalence to examine potential associations between tropical bat characteristics and previous infection by certain virus families. Bats with large colony sizes, such as Eidolon helvum and Rousettus aegyptiacus , were apparently at increased risk of infection with orthoflavi- and orthorubulaviruses compared to other tropical bat species. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

A list of 711 specimens of bats belonging to 55 species of 11 families originating from Kenya, housed in the collections of the Natural History Museum, Vienna, Austria (494 specimens / 39 species / 9 families), and the National Museum, Prague, Czech Republic (217 / 34 / 9), is presented in a systematic review. The species lists are complemented by comments on distribution, morphometric data, and in some species, also on the phylogenetic affinities. The specimens originate from 64 localities that cover almost completely the territory of Kenya (33 NMW localities, 35 NMP localities) and represent 188 new records (species vs. locality). The NMP collection contains one species new for the Kenyan fauna confirmed by the molecular genetic approach, Neoromicia capensis, and the bat fauna of Kenya now comprises 110 species in total. In Cardioderma cor, Coleura afra, Platymops setiger, Vansonia rueppellii, Neoromicia zuluensis, Pseudoromicia nyanza, Afropipistrellus grandidieri, Scotophilus nux, and Miniopterus mossambicus, the collection specimens represent significant distribution records, making their occurrence ranges in Kenya more precise. A discrepancy between the morphotype and genotype was observed in the genus Epomophorus; three species of this genus were identified based on their morphological traits, while their mtDNA sequences only partly agreed with this identification, and showed presence of the genome of E. gambianus in Kenya, where it was not identified by the morphological approach. These results suggest broad sharing of the mitochondrial genome among fruit bat species. The morphometric comparisons of Rhinolophus acrotis from Kenya revealed an extraordinarily small-sized morphotype of its Mount Elgon populations. However, this morphotype seems to represent just a local montane ecomorph without taxonomic relevance. Syntopic occurrence of deeply separated mitochondrial lineages of Coleura afra (genetic distances 3.4–3.8%) suggests rather a complex phylogenetic history of the species than a taxonomic relevance of this lineage separation. The sequence obtained from the Kenyan Taphozous perforatus did not differ substantially from the haplotypes of this species available from other populations from Africa and the Middle East, all samples created a single lineage. This result shows the formerly suggested separate taxonomic position of T. perforatus populations from eastern Africa to be unjustified, and thus, we suggest the name haedinus Thomas to be considered a junior synonym of perforatus Geoffroy. The sequences of Taphozous hildegardeae, evaluated for the first time, represented a single lineage that formed a separated branch within the genus Taphozous, in a sister position to the lineage comprising the Oriental T. melanopogon. The taxonomic assessment of the populations of the Scotophilus dinganii morphotype of eastern Africa, assigned to two separate species, S. andrewreborii and S. ejetai, did not corroborate such division. We suggest the prior name Scotophilus colias to be used for these populations and the names andrewreborii Brooks et Bickham and ejetai Brooks et Bickham to be considered junior synonyms of colias Thomas. The revision of the type locality of Miniopterus minor Peters, 1867 indicates that it lies on Zanzibar Island instead of the Zanzibar Coast of mainland Tanzania, as it was mentioned previously.

Anthropogenic disturbances and the subsequent loss of biodiversity are altering species abundances and communities. Since species vary in their pathogen competence, spatio-temporal changes in host assemblages may lead to changes in disease dynamics. We explore how longitudinal changes in bat species assemblages affect the disease dynamics of coronaviruses (CoVs) in more than 2300 cave-dwelling bats captured over two years from five caves in Ghana. This reveals uneven CoV infection patterns between closely related species, with the alpha-CoV 229E-like and SARS-related beta-CoV 2b emerging as multi-host pathogens. Prevalence and infection likelihood for both phylogenetically distinct CoVs is influenced by the abundance of competent species and naïve subadults. Broadly, bat species vary in CoV competence, and highly competent species are more common in less diverse communities, leading to increased CoV prevalence in less diverse bat assemblages. In line with the One Health framework, our work supports the notion that biodiversity conservation may be the most proactive measure to prevent the spread of pathogens with zoonotic potential.

A list of 58 specimens of bats belonging to 16 species of six families originating from Benin, housed in the collection of the National Museum, Prague, Czech Republic, is presented in a systematic review. The specimens represent 24 new records (species vs. locality) of bats from Benin. The species lists are complemented by comments on distribution and morphometric data. The collection contains three species new for the Beninese fauna, Hipposideros jonesi, H. abae, and H. cf. lamottei, and the bat fauna of Benin now comprises 55 species in total. Scotophilus nigrita is documented from Benin for the second time, and for the first time from a specific record site in this country. Besides the majority of common bat species, considering their available records in Benin, the collection includes several other species rather uncommon in the country, such as Rhinolophus fumigatus, Hipposideros cf. ruber, Pseudoromicia rendalli, or Scotophilus livingstonii. In two of the latter group of species, the molecular genetic analysis revealed new extents of distribution for particular mitochondrial lineages in Benin, like the D lineage of H. cf. ruber or S. livingstonii s.str. As complete as possible check-list of the Beninese bat fauna comprising all known record localities is included.

Understanding the immunogenetic basis of coronavirus (CoV) susceptibility in major pathogen reservoirs, such as bats, is central to inferring their zoonotic potential. Members of the cryptic Hipposideros bat species complex differ in CoV susceptibility, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are the best understood genetic basis of pathogen resistance, and differences in MHC diversity are one possible reason for asymmetrical infection patterns among closely related species. Here, we aimed to link asymmetries in observed CoV (CoV-229E, CoV-2B and CoV-2Bbasal) susceptibility to immunogenetic differences amongst four Hipposideros bat species. From the 2072 bats assigned to their respective species using the mtDNA cytochrome b gene, members of the most numerous and ubiquitous species, Hipposideros caffer D, were most infected with CoV-229E and SARS-related CoV-2B. Using a subset of 569 bats, we determined that much of the existent allelic and functional (i.e. supertype) MHC DRB class II diversity originated from common ancestry. One MHC supertype shared amongst all species, ST12, was consistently linked to susceptibility with CoV-229E, which is closely related to the common cold agent HCoV-229E, and infected bats and those carrying ST12 had a lower body condition. The same MHC supertype was connected to resistance to CoV-2B, and bats with ST12 were less likely be co-infected with CoV-229E and CoV-2B. Our work suggests a role of immunogenetics in determining CoV susceptibility in bats. We advocate for the preservation of functional genetic and species diversity in reservoirs as a means of mitigating the risk of disease spillover.

The main aim of ex situ programmes in conservation is to provide a suitable source of individuals for future reintroductions or reinforcement of existing populations. A fundamental prerequisite is creating and maintaining healthy and sustainable captive populations that show high levels of phenotypic and genetic similarity to their wild counterparts. The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is a model of a locally extinct species that has been subject to long-term captive breeding and of past and ongoing reintroduction efforts. To test for genetic suitability of ex situ population, a comparative genetic evaluation including in situ populations was undertaken. The assignment analysis of 97 captive lynx from 45 European zoos, wildlife parks and private breeds was performed using 124 lynx from different wild Eurasian populations belonging to three evolutionary lineages: the Carpathian, the Northern, and the Siberian lynx. The results showed a high proportion of Siberian lynx (51%) in the European captive lynx population. Remaining captive animals were assigned to either the Carpathian (28%), or the Northern lynx lineage (13%). Admixture between lineages was rather low (8%). Notably, no or very low difference in genetic diversity was detected between the wild and captive lynx populations. Our results support the potential of the captive population to provide genetically suitable individuals for genetic rescue programmes. The transfer of genes between isolated populations, including those in captivity, should become an important management tool to preserve genetic variability and prevent inbreeding depression in native and reintroduced populations of this iconic predator.

Initially, the Rhinolophus hipposideros group was defined by two morphological traits, the structure of the nose-leaf and the shape of basioccipital bone of the skull. Originally, it consisted of two species, R. hipposideros and R. midas, whereas currently it is considered to contain a single species, R. hipposideros, under whose rank both original species have been joined. The interpretation of geographic variability within the group has traditionally been based on variation in body and skull size, nose-leaf shape, and several selected skull and tooth characters. This approach resulted in delimitations of up to seven subspecies, mostly in the Mediterranean area, a conception introduced more than a hundred years ago and accepted by many authors till today. We investigated the phylogenetic relationships among populations of R. hipposideros with the help of molecular genetic, morphological, and acoustic examinations. Our analysis uncovered the existence of an unexpected diversity within the R. hipposideros group, challenging its current phylogenetic and taxonomic arrangements. The molecular genetic analysis of almost 100 samples and morphological examinations of about 300 specimens showed two main, geographically exclusive, phylogenetic lineages within the group, well delimited by molecular characteristics and possessing two distinct morphotypes and two distinct echotypes. These two lineages are isolated deep enough to be considered separate species. One of them, R. hipposideros s.str., is widespread over the south-western Eurasia and north-western and north-eastern Africa, and the other, R. midas, is distributed in a small range around the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman. The extensive range of R. hipposideros s.str. is inhabited at least by two subspecies, separated mainly by the genetic characters, whereas the morphological and echolocation traits do not distinguish the populations sufficiently. The western R. h. hipposideros occurs in the Maghreb and Europe west of the Dnieper River, Bosporus, and the Strait of Karpathos, and the eastern R. h. minimus lives east of this boundary, including the populations of Crimea, Caucasus, the Middle East, and north-eastern Africa (Sudan to Djibouti). The two subspecies also differ in karyotype, with 2n = 58 in R. h. minimus and 2n = 54–56 in R. h. hipposideros. The taxonomic position of the easternmost populations of R. hipposideros s.str. (West Turkestan, Afghanistan, Kashmir) remains unresolved and has to be investigated more elaborately and using a more extensive sample set.

Background Ghana is one of the six bat diversity hotspots on the African continent, yet its caves have not been fully explored for the bats they host. Research Aims We aimed to assess the species composition and diversity of five caves in central Ghana and identified those needing immediate conservation attention. Methods Using mist-nets, we captured bats over 102 full nights between October 2010 and July 2012 from the Upper Guinean forest and Savannah regions in central Ghana. Results A total of 10,226 bats belonging to nine species were recorded. PERMANOVA suggested significant variation in species composition among the caves. A SIMPER analysis revealed Coleura afra and Hipposideros jonesi to be the main discriminating species between caves, with a dominance of Hipposideros cf. ruber in all caves. The Bat Cave Vulnerability Index (BCVI) revealed Mframabuom cave from the Upper Guinean forest region as a high priority cave hosting threatened species, yet highly disturbed. The remaining caves were identified as medium priority caves. Conclusion The results of the study suggest the need for further research and an immediate conservation strategy as essential for approaching national conservation goals.

The increased research on bat coronaviruses after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) allowed the very rapid identification of SARS-CoV-2. This is an excellent example of the importance of knowing viruses harbored by wildlife in general, and bats in particular, for global preparedness against emerging viral pathogens.

Levels of biodiversity are globally underestimated, especially in tropical ecosystems. This is particularly so for bats compared to other mammalian taxa, due to morphological conservatism. Here, we investigate West African bats of the Hipposideros caffer complex, an insectivorous bat group occurring throughout the Afrotropics. From samples collected in Ghana, we aim to resolve the cryptic diversity identified by mitochondrial (mt) DNA using nuclear genetic, acoustic, and external morphometric data. We confirmed the presence of four previously established mtDNA lineages within the H. caffer complex and found significant genetic divergence among lineages based on nuclear microsatellite data and significant differences in frequencies of echolocation calls and morphometric measures. From these new data, we conclude that H. caffer complex in West Africa consists of at least four distinct species. While the small-sized species from coastal savanna could be assigned to H. caffer tephrus, the taxonomic identity of the three sympatric, similarly sized species pertaining to H. ruber from the forest zone of Central Ghana is yet to be assessed.

ABSTRACT Bats host many viruses pathogenic to humans, and increasing evidence suggests that Rotavirus A (RVA) also belongs to this list. Rotaviruses cause diarrheal disease in many mammals and birds, and their segmented genomes allow them to reassort and increase their genetic diversity. Eighteen out of 2,142 bat fecal samples (0.8%) collected from Europe, Central America and Africa were PCR-positive for RVA and 11 of those were fully characterized using viral metagenomics. Upon contrasting their genomes with publicly available data, at least 7 distinct bat RVA genotype constellations (GCs) were identified, including evidence of reassortments and 6 novel genotypes. Some of these constellations are spread across the world, whereas others appear to be geographically restricted. Our analyses also suggest that several unusual human and equine RVA strains might be of bat RVA origin, based on their phylogenetic clustering, despite varying levels of nucleotide sequence identities between them. Although SA11 is one of the most widely used reference strains for RVA research and forms the backbone of a reverse genetics system, its origin remained enigmatic. Remarkably, the majority of the genotypes of SA11-like strains were shared with Gabonese bat RVAs, suggesting a potential common origin. Overall, our findings suggest an underexplored genetic diversity of RVAs in bats, which is likely only the tip of the iceberg. Increasing contact between humans and bat wildlife will further increase the zoonosis risk, which warrants closer attention to these viruses. Importance The increased research on bat coronaviruses after SARS-CoV and MERS-CoVallowed the very rapid identification of SARS-CoV-2. This is an excellent example of the importance of knowing viruses harbored by wildlife in general and bats in particular, for global preparedness against emerging viral pathogens. The current effort to characterize bat rotavirus strains from 3 continents shed light on the vast genetic diversity of rotaviruses and also hinted at a bat origin for several atypical rotaviruses in humans and animals, implying that zoonoses of bat rotaviruses might occur more frequently than currently realized.

Several house bat specimens superficially resembling the white-bellied house bat Scotophilus leucogaster (Cretzschmar, 1830), were recently captured in southwestern Ethiopia and southern South Sudan. These S. cf. leucogaster differed from typical S. leucogaster by their slightly smaller size and ventral coloration, conforming instead with the original description of S. altilis Allen, 1914. Scotophilus altilis is an overlooked taxon known from the Blue Nile region in Sudan that is currently considered a junior synonym of S. leucogaster. Phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (cytb) sequences revealed S. cf. leucogaster as a sister clade to S. leucogaster with a genetic distance of ca. 10%. Comparative specimens of questionable S. nigritellus de Winton, 1899 from northwestern Ethiopia and a wing biopsy sample of another S. cf. leucogaster from western Kenya also fell within this clade. Sequence data from two nuclear markers (zfy and fgb7) corroborated the distinction of S. cf. leucogaster from S. leucogaster. Likewise, morphometric analysis of cranial data largely supported this distinction, as well as taxonomic affiliation with S. altilis based on comparison with the only available paratype specimen. The position of this paratype specimen within the new Scotophilus clade, inferred from analysis of a short fragment of cytb, confirmed its taxonomic identity. Based on the presented evidence, the overlooked East African taxon S. altilis should be resurrected as a full species within the genus Scotophilus.

Four species of Mammomonogamus are known from large African herbivores. A recent study demonstrated that a single Mammomonogamus species was shared by both western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) in Central African Republic, suggesting lower species diversity than previously described in literature. We examined more than 500 fecal samples collected from sympatric African forest elephants, western lowland gorillas, and African forest buffaloes (Syncerus caffer nanus) at four study sites across Central Africa and examined them by coproscopic methods to detect Mammomonogamus eggs, which were found at three of the study sites. Subsequently, sequences of 18S rDNA, 28S rDNA, and cox1 amplified from individual eggs were analyzed. Phylogenetic analyses of both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA revealed two clades: one formed by sequences originating from Gabonese buffaloes and the other comprising gorillas and elephants. The gorilla-elephant clade was further differentiated depending on the locality. We show the existence of at least two distinct species of Mammomonogamus, M. loxodontis in elephants and gorillas and M. nasicola in buffaloes. The available information on Mammomonogamus in African herbivores is reviewed.

Strongylid nematodes in large terrestrial herbivores such as great apes, equids, elephants, and humans tend to occur in complex communities. However, identification of all species within strongylid communities using traditional methods based on coproscopy or single nematode amplification and sequencing is virtually impossible. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies provide opportunities to generate large amounts of sequence data and enable analyses of samples containing a mixture of DNA from multiple species/genotypes. We designed and tested an HTS approach for strain-level identification of gastrointestinal strongylids using ITS-2 metabarcoding at the MiSeq Illumina platform in samples from two free-ranging non-human primate species inhabiting the same environment, but differing significantly in their host traits and ecology. Although we observed overlapping of particular haplotypes, overall the studied primate species differed in their strongylid nematode community composition. Using HTS, we revealed hidden diversity in the strongylid nematode communities in non-human primates, more than one haplotype was found in more than 90% of samples and coinfections of more than one putative species occurred in 80% of samples. In conclusion, the HTS approach on strongylid nematodes, preferably using fecal samples, represents a time and cost-efficient way of studying strongylid communities and provides a resolution superior to traditional approaches.

The African sheath-tailed bat (Coleura afra, Emballonuridae) occurs patchily throughout sub-Saharan Africa and in southern Arabia. While the populations in southeastern Africa have been studied, those from the other parts of its distribution range have not been known well. We assessed genetic and morphological variation among some African and Arabian populations including those previously not studied. The recovered phylogenetic pattern suggests the existence of three major evolutionary lineages in this species. One lineage comprising populations from Kenya and Tanzania could be attributed to the nominotypical subspecies, although it surprisingly included also the population from Ghana. The respective populations from Yemen and Gabon were represented by the other two lineages. The recently discovered population of C. afra from Gabon shows considerable external morphological variation and a certain degree of sexual size dimorphism. Two morphogroups, based mainly on overall skull size, could be identified among populations from West Africa, East Africa, and Arabia. The larger-sized group corresponded to the nominotypical form. The smaller-sized group could be split into two subgroups defined by the skull shape, comprising populations from northeast Africa and Arabia, and West Africa, respectively. Although these two morphological subgroups seemed to correspond to forms gallarum/nilosa and kummeri, these allocations were not corroborated by the molecular analyses. Given the comparatively large genetic distances in C. afra, taxonomic revisions of the southern Arabian and Central African forms are anticipated.

Five of the 13 known species of Mammomonogamus have been described in members of the family Felidae, including domestic cats, making felids the most frequent hosts of Mammomonogamus. The occurrence of Mammomonogamus in felids is geographically scattered and information on the life cycle and other aspects of infections is lacking. The paucity of data opens the questions on possible conspecificity of some of the described species of Mammomonogamus and on the existence of possible reservoirs for infections in domestic cats in geographically isolated endemic foci of infection. To test such hypotheses, we compared sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear markers obtained from Mammomonogamus adults or eggs collected from domestic cats in three geographically distant localities. Based on morphology, geographic origin and site of infection, the worms examined can be referred to as Mammomonogamus ierei and Mammomonogamus auris. Phylogenetic analyses of both mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA markers showed monophyly of the genus Mammomonogamus and suggested the existence of at least two species in cats. Review of the literature, the existence of several species and the discontinuous geographic distribution of Mammomonogamus infections in domestic cats suggest an historical spillover of infection from wild reservoirs, presumably wild felids.

A schematic illustration of direct and indirect eff ects of helminths and their products on host immune cells.As shown here