The illegal wildlife trade is a significant threat to global biodiversity, often targeting already threatened species. In combating the trade, it is critical to know the provenance of the traded animal or part to facilitate targeted conservation actions, such as education and enforcement. Here, we present and compare two methods, portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) and stable isotope analysis (SIA), to determine both the geographic and source provenance (captive or wild) of traded animals and their parts. Using three critically endangered, frequently illegally traded Philippine species, the Palawan forest turtle (Siebenrockiella leytensis), the Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), and the Philippine pangolin (Manis culionensisis), we demonstrate that using these methods, we can more accurately assign provenance using pXRF data (x¯ = 83%) than SIA data (x¯ = 47%). Our results indicate that these methods provide a valuable forensic tool that can be used in combating the illegal wildlife trade.

An 18,493 base pair mitogenome of the Philippine Cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia) is presented, containing 13 complete protein-coding genes, two rRNAs, 24 tRNAs, two control regions, and two partial duplicate copies of cytb and nd6. The mitogenome contains two complete copies of tRNA-Leu, tRNA-Ser, tRNA-Thr, and tRNA-Pro. Phylogenetic analysis places the Philippine Cockatoo within the subgenus Licmetis, with its closest relatives being the Tanimbar Corella (Cacatua goffiniana) and the Western Corella (Cacatua pastinator) and all three species being sisters to other white cockatoos in the subgenus Cacatua. The gene order and content of the mitogenome are most similar to C. pastinator, containing a partial duplication of cytb, and whole duplications of the control region and several tRNA genes. However, the total duplication of nd6 could not be verified. Analysis of the control regions indicates that these are paralogs of each other; both copies contain preserved features such as the Extended Termination Associated Sequences 1 and 2 (ETAS1, ETAS2) and Conserved Sequence Block 1 (CSB1) associated with d-loop or control region replication in mitogenomes. Gene order for the species cannot be verified since the region corresponding to duplicate copies of tRNA-Glu and nd6 in other cockatoos could not be properly sequenced.

The Philippine cockatoo or “katala” (Cacatua haematuropygia) is a Critically Endangered parrot species endemic to the Philippines with an estimated wild population of up to 1,120 individuals. Threats to its continued existence include habitat destruction and poaching for the pet trade. While protected populations exist in Palawan under the care of the Katala Foundation Inc., no previous genetic studies aimed at quantifying genetic diversity in the protected populations have been done. This study examines two mitochondrial genes, ND2 and COX1, in protected populations of the katala. ND2 was sequenced for 101 individuals while for COX1, 103 individuals were successfully sequenced. Results show that very few haplotypes are present for both ND2 and COX1 and there is a possible reduction of genetic diversity over time. In addition, the nuclear gene TGFB2 was examined for 31 individuals. TGFB2 sequences were highly similar, further supporting the hypothesis of a possible genetic bottleneck. Future conservation work and breeding efforts for the species should consider the possible consequences of reduced genetic diversity.

BACKGROUND:Parasites can exert selection pressure on their hosts through effects on survival, on reproductive success, on sexually selected ornament, with important ecological and evolutionary consequences, such as changes in population viability. Consequently, hemoparasites have become the focus of recent avian studies. Infection varies significantly among taxa. Various factors might explain the differences in infection among taxa, including habitat, climate, host density, the presence of vectors, life history and immune defence. Feeding behaviour can also be relevant both through increased exposure to vectors and consumption of secondary metabolites with preventative or therapeutic effects that can reduce parasite load. However, the latter has been little investigated. Psittaciformes (parrots and cockatoos) are a good model to investigate these topics, as they are known to use biological control against ectoparasites and to feed on toxic food. We investigated the presence of avian malaria parasites (Plasmodium), intracellular haemosporidians (Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon), unicellular flagellate protozoans (Trypanosoma) and microfilariae in 19 Psittaciformes species from a range of habitats in the Indo-Malayan, Australasian and Neotropical regions. We gathered additional data on hemoparasites in wild Psittaciformes from the literature. We considered factors that may control the presence of hemoparasites in the Psittaciformes, compiling information on diet, habitat, and climate. Furthermore, we investigated the role of diet in providing antiparasitic secondary metabolites that could be used as self-medication to reduce parasite load.RESULTS:We found hemoparasites in only two of 19 species sampled. Among them, all species that consume at least one food item known for its secondary metabolites with antimalarial, trypanocidal or general antiparasitic properties, were free from hemoparasites. In contrast, the infected parrots do not consume food items with antimalarial or even general antiparasitic properties. We found that the two infected species in this study consumed omnivorous diets. When we combined our data with data from studies previously investigating blood parasites in wild parrots, the positive relationship between omnivorous diets and hemoparasite infestation was confirmed. Individuals from open habitats were less infected than those from forests.CONCLUSIONS:The consumption of food items known for their secondary metabolites with antimalarial, trypanocidal or general antiparasitic properties, as well as the higher proportion of infected species among omnivorous parrots, could explain the low prevalence of hemoparasites reported in many vertebrates.

Palawan Hornbills occur in three protected areas managed by Katala Foundation, Inc. (KFI), which was established primarily for the conservation of the Philippine Cockatoo Cacatua haematuropygia within the Palawan faunal region. Characteristics of nest habitats and nest trees are presented, which may aid habitat restoration efforts for the species. A total of nine nest trees, comprising eight species, were monitored within the cockatoo reserves. Nest trees were canopy forming or emergent species. Breeding season on Dumaran Island lasted from approximately end of March to mid-July. Clutch size ranged from two to three eggs, with four on one occasion. The average number of chicks fledged was two, although in the nest with four eggs all four chicks fledged. Palawan Hornbills are apparently capable of withstanding a certain degree of habitat degradation. The species is able to forage in closed forests, forest-agricultural landscapes and mangroves, but persistent shifting cultivation, and more recently, mining, biofuel plantations and other larger scale projects, continually reduce suitable habitats. Hunting hornbills for bushmeat is an ongoing threat and almost certainly under-recorded. Nestlings are regularly poached for the pet trade, as indicated by occasional confiscations. In the past years the species has turned up sporadically in the domestic and international wildlife trade. The Palawan Hornbill benefits from the management of cockatoo reserves and forest rehabilitation implemented by KFI and particularly from the wildlife-warden schemes, which have been established at all project sites. Because of its role as seed disperser, the hornbill plays an important role in the forest ecosystem, which can be usefully promoted in conservation education activities.

Southern Palawan is one of the hottest hotspots for illegal trade of wildlife in the Philippines. Large numbers of wildlife are transported either by fishing vessels or private chartered planes from the south of Palawan to Zamboanga, Cebu, Manila, Batangas and even to Malaysia. Parrots and mynas are among the species of birds most traded due to their huge demand in the market. Other birds that are also under considerable pressure of poaching are Palawan hornbill and White-bellied sea eagle. Apart from birds, other Palawan wildlife included in the illegal shipments are Palawan pangolin, Balabac mouse deer, Palawan bearcat, Palawan bearded pig, Southern Palawan tree squirrel, freshwater turtles and beetles. The present study identified species of conservation priority involved in trade. The study also presents data on traded wildlife species in Palawan including their market value, modes of transport, operation of wildlife traders in Palawan, and trade routes.

Upland forests have an outstanding significance in water management and they hold an important fraction of Indonesian terrestrial biodiversity. The majority of mountains throughout Indonesia are volcanoes. If active, physical changes can be dramatic. Even a layer of only 1 mm ash on a leaf can reduce light penetration by 90%. Nevertheless, Mountain forests play a significant role for maintaining species diversity in Indonesia, since significant tracts of forests, particularly on Sumatra, Java, Bali, Nusatenggara, Sulawesi and the Moluccas are left only in higher altitudes. The forests on these mountain range gives the impression of being stunted in growth with large trees only to be found in sheltered situations. Whether it is the soil conditions, direct climatic effect, or the change of the communities in disperser organisms, the formation of the forest is still unknown. It has been recorded that 81% of the entire mammal population of Borneo is restricted to altitudes below 660 m. It has been recorded that 81% of the entire mammal population of Borneo is restricted to altitudes below 660 m.