Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) is a critical staple crop, providing food security for over one-third of the global population. The preservation and characterization of traditional landraces are essential for sustaining biodiversity and improving crop resilience. This study aimed to assess the genetic diversity of 23 rice landraces from Bihar using agro-morphological traits and molecular markers. A comprehensive Distinctiveness, Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) test was conducted, evaluating 33 phenotypic characteristics. The results revealed significant variability, with 6 traits exhibiting monomorphism, 1 partially monomorphic, 6 dimorphic, and 20 polymorphic, indicating high genetic diversity among genotypes. Notably, landraces such as Sathi-1 and Parwa Pankhi displayed rare traits, enhancing their potential for breeding programs. Molecular characterization, performed using 15 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, identified 81 alleles, including 7 unique alleles, reinforcing the genetic distinctiveness of the landraces. The Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) values ranged from 0.032 to 0.87, demonstrating high marker efficiency in genotype differentiation. The integration of morphological and molecular markers provided a robust framework for rice landrace conservation, aiding in the identification of valuable genetic resources for future breeding initiatives. These findings underscore the significance of conserving traditional landraces to enhance rice genetic improvement and sustainability.

Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) is a critical staple crop, providing food security for over one-third of the global population. The preservation and characterization of traditional landraces are essential for sustaining biodiversity and improving crop resilience. This study aimed to assess the genetic diversity of 23 rice landraces from Bihar using agro-morphological traits and molecular markers. A comprehensive Distinctiveness, Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) test was conducted, evaluating 33 phenotypic characteristics. The results revealed significant variability, with 6 traits exhibiting monomorphism, 1 partially monomorphic, 6 dimorphic, and 20 polymorphic, indicating high genetic diversity among genotypes. Notably, landraces such as Sathi-1 and Parwa Pankhi displayed rare traits, enhancing their potential for breeding programs. Molecular characterization, performed using 15 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, identified 81 alleles, including 7 unique alleles, reinforcing the genetic distinctiveness of the landraces. The Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) values ranged from 0.032 to 0.87, demonstrating high marker efficiency in genotype differentiation. The integration of morphological and molecular markers provided a robust framework for rice landrace conservation, aiding in the identification of valuable genetic resources for future breeding initiatives. These findings underscore the significance of conserving traditional landraces to enhance rice genetic improvement and sustainability.

To evaluate the genetic diversity and phylogenetic affinities between 22 distinct rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes based morphological traits and SSR based molecular analysis, research work was conducted at Rice Breeding Section(for DUS trait evaluation) and Rice Molecular Lab (for SSR marker analysis), Faculty of Agriculture, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur. Through DUS based characterization, important differences were found in characteristics like auricle pigmentation, basal sheath color, stigma color, culm attitude, and Attitude of flag. A few genotypes displayed anthocyanin pigment in their leaf collars and purple auricles, which suggests trait-specific diversity. The range of grain morphology was short to medium in length and narrow to wide in breadth, therefore highlighting the phenotypic variation among genotypes. SSR based assessment of genetic diversity using 15 SSR markers revealed overall genotypic variance ranging from 0. 00 to 0. 994, the polymorphism information content (PIC) values averaged about 0. 75, showing that the markers were quite informative. Shannon's Diversity Index (H = 3. 091), Simpson's Index (λ = 0. 9545), and evenness (E. 5 = 1. 0) stating considerable allelic richness and diversity. Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) clarified 42. 8% of total variation and exposed different spatial clusters; UPGMA clustering grouped the genotypes into four main clusters at approximately 60% similarity, hence showing significant genetic variance. The coexistence of both frequent and rare alleles as well as varied degrees of genetic distance helps to highlight the significance of these genotypes for germplasm preservation and breeding techniques. Combining morphological and molecular data offers a solid foundation for parent selection in rice improvement initiatives targeting yield, stress resistance, and genetic improvement.

Riverine agroforestry is a most diverse, dynamic and widely adopted in tropical agroecosystem along river catchments contributes to climate resilient farming and restoring rivers flow. We estimated the yield loss in paddy cultivar MTU7029 grown with Acacia nilotica, Butea monosperma, Mangifera indica, Terminalia arjuna, and Terminalia tomentosa. Tree crop interaction study was performed for two crop cycle (year 2021 and 2022) covering entire grid points of 100km river stretches, utilizing the same farmer fields, crop variety, and tree species. Additionally, two other factors, namely stem diameter (10–40, 41–80, 81–120, and > 120 cm DBH) and tree density (10, 20, 40, 60 trees ha− 1) were taken into account for the most abundant tree species T. arjuna at grids 5, 8 and 10 of riverine ecosystem. For species specific interaction, 36 trees and diameter and density class assessment, 30 trees were employed from the farmer’s fields. Sample plots of 1m² size were established in standing crops at 2m, 8m, 15m, and 25m distances along a transect line from both sides of the tree, oriented in an east-west direction. Results showed a negative impact of trees on crop as Paddy yield reported 3.64 t ha− 1 at 2m and 5.52 t ha− 1 at 25m distance from the tree in crop field. Adverse effect of trees continued to decline paddy tiller and hills by 51% and 10.93% respectively in tree proximity. A large trees with big canopy M. indica and T. tomentosa were found most negative for crop yield than moderate to small canopy species A. nilotica, B. monosperma and T. arjuna. The large diameter trees led to the greater yield loss of 42.53% than the lower diameter trees. Farmland trees between 40–60 ha− 1 found to limit the yield by 66.45% when close to trees, however the yield loss was less with decreasing tree densities in the crop fields. The tree shade was observed to be the most influencing factor on yield loss of paddy than the other factors. Therefore, site specific tree selection based on morphological parameters such as height, canopy structure, and tree density up to 10–20 ha− 1 can promoted for the riverine agroecosystem. Regular canopy management and removal of exploitable diameter tree may also compensate the yield loss through intermediate income and yield loss reduction of paddy yield. Adoption of such practices may contribute towards climate resilient smart agroforestry practice expansion in riverine agroecosystem.

Cowpea has the immense potential to be used as an important fodder crop under future climate scenarios due to its adaptability. Hence, it necessary to study on different fodder cowpea genotypes x environment interaction. In this context, an experiment was carried out with thirty fodder cowpea genotypes (G) containing check Bundel Lobia-1 at Pusa farm of Dr. RPCAU, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar during kharif season of 2019 and 2020. Randomized Block Design was used with three replications and spacing 45 x 10 cm. The environment combinations were E1 [Date of sowing (DOS) 15th July 2019 in irrigated open field condition], E2 (DOS- 26th July 2019 in irrigated open field condition), E3 (DOS- 15th July 2019 in rain out shelter for drought condition), E4 (DOS- 15th July 2020 in irrigated open field condition), E5 (DOS- 26th July 2020 in irrigated open field condition) and E6 (DOS- 15th July 2020 in rain out shelter for drought condition). Ideal genotypes on the basis of GGE biplot “genotype view” was genotype G3 for highest production efficiency (gm/m2/day) and G29 for highest green fodder yield (gm/plant). “What – Won – Where” GGE biplot results showed existence of two mega environment, where genotype G3 was winner in both E3 and E6 environment for production efficiency; whereas for green fodder yield also two mega environments were existed where G3 was winner in E6 and G29 in E4. The environment E5 was found as best for identifying cowpea genotype adapted for the region for production efficiency and E4 was best for green fodder yield. Cowpea has the immense potential to be used as an important fodder crop under future climate scenarios due to its adaptability. Hence, it necessary to study on different fodder cowpea genotypes x environment interaction. In this context, an experiment was carried out with thirty fodder cowpea genotypes (G) containing check Bundel Lobia-1 at Pusa farm of Dr. RPCAU, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar during kharif season of 2019 and 2020. Randomized Block Design was used with three replications and spacing 45 x 10 cm. The environment combinations were E1 [Date of sowing (DOS) 15th July 2019 in irrigated open field condition], E2 (DOS- 26th July 2019 in irrigated open field condition), E3 (DOS- 15th July 2019 in rain out shelter for drought condition), E4 (DOS- 15th July 2020 in irrigated open field condition), E5 (DOS- 26th July 2020 in irrigated open field condition) and E6 (DOS- 15th July 2020 in rain out shelter for drought condition). Ideal genotypes on the basis of GGE biplot “genotype view” was genotype G3 for highest production efficiency (gm/m2/day) and G29 for highest green fodder yield (gm/plant). “What – Won – Where” GGE biplot results showed existence of two mega environment, where genotype G3 was winner in both E3 and E6 environment for production efficiency; whereas for green fodder yield also two mega environments were existed where G3 was winner in E6 and G29 in E4. The environment E5 was found as best for identifying cowpea genotype adapted for the region for production efficiency and E4 was best for green fodder yield.

The field experiment was conducted on Agronomy research farm of Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology Kumarganj Ayodhya (Uttar Pradesh, India) during Kharif season 2021 and 2022. The experiment was laid out in split-plot-design with three replications. Four establishment methods viz., Direct seeded rice, Drum seeder technique, Transplanted rice and System of rice intensification (SRI) were taken in main plot, and six weed management practices viz., Penoxsulam 22.5 g ha-1 at 2-3 leaf stage of weeds DAS/DAT, Penoxsulam 22.5 g ha-1 at 2-3 leaf stage of weeds fb one hand weeding at 35 DAS/DAT, Bispyribac sodium (10%) 25 g a.i. ha-1 at 15 DAS/DAT, Bispyribac sodium (10%) 25 g a.i. ha-1 at 15 DAS/DAT fb one hand weeding at 35 DAS/DAT, Weed free (Two hand weeding) and Weedy check in sub plot. Result revealed that significantly higher crop growth rate, relative growth rate, absolute growth rate, net assimilation rate and grain yield was recorded in system of rice intensification (SRI) during both the years of investigation. Among the weed management practices, higher value recorded with spray of Bispyribac sodium (10%) 25 g a.i. ha-1 at 15 days after sowing/days after transplanting fb one hand weeding at 35 DAS/DAT.

Afield experiment was conducted during Kharif season 2021 and 2022 at Agronomy research farm, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology Kumarganj, Ayodhya Uttar Pradesh, (India). The experiment was laid out in split plot design with thrice replications taking three moisture regime viz., 6 cm at 1 DADPW (Days after disappearance of ponded water); 6 cm at 4 DADPW (Days after disappearance of ponded water); 6 cm at 7 DADPW (Days after disappearance of ponded water)in main plot, and four weed management practices viz., control; Organic Mulch (Rice Straw @5t ha-1);Herbicide (Bispyribac sodium (10%) @ 200 ml ha-1 post Emergence) and two hand weeding at 25 and 45 DAS in sub plot. Results revealed that significantly higher crop growth rate, relative growth rate, absolute growth rate, net assimilation rate and grain yield was recorded in 6 cm at 4 DADPW (Days after disappearance of ponded water) during both the years of investigation. Among the weed management practices, higher value recorded with sequential two hand weeding at 25 and 45 days after sowing.

The present experimental work was carried out at Rice Breeding Section, Pusa, Samastipur, with twenty-two lowland genotypes which were shown in R.B.D. style and were analysed for genetic divergence with the help of Mahalanobis’s D2 statistics.Twenty-two genotypes of rice were grouped into six clusters using Tocher’s method. The cluster I consists of maximum number of genotypes forming the largest cluster followed by cluster VI having three genotypes. The intra cluster distance ranged from 0.00 to 84.45. The inter cluster distance ranged from 52. to 282.49.Thehighest intra cluster distance was observed in cluster VI (84.85) followed by Cluster Ι (67.75). Maximum inter cluster distance was observed between cluster ΙΙΙ and Cluster ΙV followed by cluster ΙΙΙ and cluster ΙV. Per cent contribution of 15 characters and towards total genetic divergence was found maximum for 1000 grain weight (35.5 per cent) followed by days to flowering (22.08 per cent), grain length (17.32 per cent). It was observed that 1000 grain weight ranked 1st maximum times (82) followed by days to flowering (51), grain length (40), plant height (36).The genotype in cluster III and cluster IV due to maximum inter cluster distance between them, exhibited high degree of genetic diversity and thus may be utilized in future for heterosis breeding programme for getting high yielding recombinants.

Character association studies will help to assess the relationship among the yield and its components for enhancing the usefulness of the selection. In view of this, the present research work was carried out to assess the correlation coefficient and path analysis among twenty five maize genotypes using eleven quantitative parameters. Correlation studies indicated that plant height (cm), ear height (cm), ear length (cm), ear girth (cm), number of kernel rows per ear, number of kernels per row showed significant positive association with grain yield (Kg/ha) as well as among themselves at phenotypic and genotypic level. Hence, selection for any one of these characters would bring in simultaneous improvement of other characters and also finally improvement in grain yield (kg/ha). Path coefficient analysis revealed that the highest positive direct effects on grain yield was exhibited by days to 75% tasseling, ear length, days to 75% brown husk, ear height and ear Original Research Article Singh et al.; CJAST, 39(25): 91-99, 2020; Article no.CJAST.60092 92 girth. Therefore, present investigation could be helpful in a reliable selection of parental lines based on the above given traits as well as for the development of high yielding verities for further breeding programs.

The genetic divergence among thirteen genotypes of maize were estimated by using Mahalanobis D2 statistic for ten characters. The genotypes were grouped into three clusters. Cluster I comprised 11 parental genotypes (CLQR, VL111, R4093, R6429, S8481, S8200, CML490, HK1, WLS, CLQRC and G18), while Cluster II (CLQ25) and III (CG18) were mono-genotypic. The highest inter cluster distance was recorded between cluster II and III (4.88) followed by cluster I and III (4.67). Maximum genetic distance was observed between the parents WLS and G18, whereas minimum distance was observed between the parents VL111 and S8481 suggesting more variability in genetic makeup of the genotypes included in these clusters. Cluster I comprising of 11 genotypes have maximum mean values for number of kernels per row and number of kernels row per cob while minimum mean values for plant height and ear height. Cluster II containing only CLQ25 have maximum mean values for ear girth and grain yield per plant. The highest contribution in the manifestation of total genetic divergence was exhibited by grain yield per plant (28.63%) followed by ear girth (28.47%), ear length (19.23%), number of kernel per row (11.50), number of kernels row per cob (10.04). Out of 30 crosses, 11 crosses showed positive significant heterobeltiosis for grain yield per plant. The crosses CLQ25 × CLQR and WLS × R4093 belongs to high divergent class. It could be concluded that genetic diversity can be utilized as a reliable parameter for predicting heterosis in hybrids.

The present investigation was carried out with aim to deduce the association among different characters with grain yield, i.e. their mutual relation with help of correlation analysis as well as to identify the component trait which are directly or indirectly contributing to the yield. The experiment was carried out at Rice Breeding Section, Pusa, Samastipur in kharif, 2018 from June, 26 to December 28. Total of twenty-two lowland rice accessions were sown in Randomized complete Block design Fashion (R.C.B.D.), with three replications. Fifteen characters including grain yield were observed for the experiment and data was collected at respective stages. The correlation coefficient analysis revealed that grain length, root volume, panicle length of main axis, number of panicles per hill, showed positive significant correlation with grain yield per plant. Hence, emphasis should be given to these traits in selection process during yield improvement programs. Grain length, root volume, panicle length of main axis and leaf length showed high direct effect on grain yield per plant. Hence, selection based on these characters would be more effective for yield improvement.

The present investigation for various genetic parameters was done for twenty-two lowland rice genotypes in R.C.B.D. with three replications at Rice Breeding Section, Pusa Farm, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences (P-value =0.01) among genotypes for all the characters. Brasali was the highest yielder suggesting that it can be used for crossing programme for improvement in yield. The phenotypic variance was higher than corresponding genotypic variances for all the characters studied. Genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) and phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) were highest for grain yield per plant followed by1000 grain weight, plant height, number of panicles, root volume, leaf length and days to 50 % flowering revealing that sufficient variability was present in the gene pool for these characters. Thus, there is ample scope for genetic improvement of these traits through selection. The broad sense heritability ranged from 23 % (panicle length of main axis) to 97% (1000 grain weight). High heritability was obtained for most of the characters except for panicle length of main axis and kernel width. High heritability accompanied with high genetic advance as percent of mean was recorded for days to 50% flowering, plant height, root volume, number of panicles, 1000 grain weight, leaf length and grain yield per plant. High values of GCV, PCV, heritability and genetic advance as percent of mean observed for various characters indicate that these traits can be used as selection indices for yield improvement.

Erratic rainfall leading to flash flooding causes huge yield losses in lowland rice. The traditional varieties and landraces of rice possess variable levels of tolerance to submergence stress, but gene discovery and utilization of these resources has been limited to the Sub1A-1 allele from variety FR13A. Therefore, we analysed the allelic sequence variation in three Sub1 genes in a panel of 179 rice genotypes and its association with submergence tolerance. Population structure and diversity analysis based on a 36-plex genome wide genic-SNP assay grouped these genotypes into two major categories representing Indica and Japonica cultivar groups with further sub-groupings into Indica, Aus, Deepwater and Aromatic-Japonica cultivars. Targetted re-sequencing of the Sub1A, Sub1B and Sub1C genes identfied 7, 7 and 38 SNPs making 8, 9 and 67 SNP haplotypes, respectively. Haplotype networks and phylogenic analysis revealed evolution of Sub1B and Sub1A genes by tandem duplication and divergence of the ancestral Sub1C gene in that order. The alleles of Sub1 genes in tolerant reference variety FR13A seem to have evolved most recently. However, no consistent association could be found between the Sub1 allelic variation and submergence tolerance probably due to low minor allele frequencies and presence of exceptions to the known Sub1A-1 association in the genotype panel. We identified 18 cultivars with non-Sub1A-1 source of submergence tolerance which after further mapping and validation in bi-parental populations will be useful for development of superior flood tolerant rice cultivars.

Present investigation was carried out with 240 mutant lines developed from different combination of gamma rays and ethyl methyl sulfonate on three rice varieties i.e FR13A, FR13B and Labella along with three untreated checks (FR13A, FR13B and Labella). These were evaluated for their survival percentage under submerged condition and yield potential along with 9 other morpho-physiological traits using Type 2 modified augmented design during Kharif season of 2017 in the agroclimatic region of north bihar, India. Analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences among the mutant lines for all morpho-physiological characters under study. Higher magnitude of phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV), genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), heritability (broad sense) and genetic advance as percentage of mean were observed for number of tillers per plant, number of fertile tillers per plant, relative shoot elongation and survival percentage, indicating that these traits could be used as selection indices for yield improvement and submergence tolerance. Association study revealed that number of tillers per plant and survival percentage had significant positive high to moderate direct association with grain yield per plant under submergence condition. Thus, these traits may be used as selection criteria in further crop improvement programmes for submergence tolerance.

Rice is the most important food crop both in value and volume for the Asian population. Frequent drought, flood and salinity stresses exacerbated by global climate change adversely affect rice production in more than fifty percent of the rice growing areas. Green revolution high yielding varieties carrying sd1 dwarfing gene have almost fully replaced the traditional climate resilient landraces and varieties of rice. However, these were bred primarily for yield under high input conditions and therefore are sensitive to adverse climatic conditions. Hence, there is urgent need to combine the high productivity with climate resilience. Knowledge of rice genome and genes for tolerance to different abiotic stresses provided us an opportunity to transfer favorable alleles of these genes into high yielding varieties through genomics-assisted backcross breeding through multi-institutional networks. Six consistent genomic regions (QTLs) for grain yield under drought; namely qDTY1.1, qDTY2.1, qDTY2.2, qDTY3.1, qDTY3.2 and qDTY12.1 have been transferred to flood tolerant versions of mega varieties of rice, Swarna, Samba Mahsuri and IR 64. To address the problem of flash flooding qSUB1 QTL has been transferred to nine popular rice varieties, namely ADT 46, Bahadur, Ranjit, HUR 105, Sarjoo 52, Pooja, Pratikshya MTU 1075 and Rajendra Mahsuri. Further, qSALTOL1 QTL for seedling stage salt tolerance and qSSISFH8.1 for reproductive stage salt tolerance have been transferred to six popular rice varieties, ADT 45, Gayatri, MTU 1010, PR 114, Pusa 44 and Sarjoo 52. We used foreground selection markers for the presence of desired gene/QTL and recombinant selection markers for reduction of linkage drag around these genes. Genotypic background selection was done after BC3F3 stage using a 50K SNP chip on a set of 20 advance lines obtained by phenotypic selection for closeness to the recipient parents. Near-isogenic lines (NILs) with more than 95% similarity to the recipient parent genome have been released and notified for commercial cultivation and are gaining fast popularity. These climate smart rice varieties will provide production stability in the adverse ecologies and support farmer’s income and livelihood.

The present investigation was undertaken to estimate additive and dominance components including epistasis by three parameter model (joint scaling test) and gene action and genetic components by six parameter model for some quantitative and qualitative traits in linseed. The estimates of additive and dominance components through joint scaling test as well as epistasis interaction through six parameter model indicated that additive component has significant role in the expression of number of primary branches per plant, number of seeds per capsule, capsule diameter and test weight indicating that transgressive segregants of these characters can be useful for improvement of these traits in segregating generations. Dominance component played a major role in controlling the expression of number of primary branches per plant, number of seeds per capsule, seed yield per plant, test weight and rust disease reaction. Among epistatic gene interactions, additive x additive (i) and dominance x dominance (l) interactions effect showed significant impact in comparison to additive x dominance (j) interaction in controlling the expression of plant height, number of primary branches per plant, number of capsules per plant, number of seeds per capsule, capsule diameter, days to maturity, seed yield per plant, oil content, wilt disease reaction and rust disease reaction by additive x additive (i) interaction, days to 50 per cent flowering, plant height, number of capsules per plant and number of seeds per capsule by dominance x dominance (l) interaction and days to 50 per cent flowering, plant height, number of capsules per plant, days to maturity, oil content, wilt disease reaction and rust disease reaction by additive x dominance (j) interaction.

Rice is a staple cereal of India cultivated in about 43.5Mha area but with relatively low average productivity. Abiotic factors like drought, flood and salinity affect rice production adversely in more than 50% of this area. Breeding rice varieties with inbuilt tolerance to these stresses offers an economically viable and sustainable option to improve rice productivity. Availability of high quality reference genome sequence of rice, knowledge of exact position of genes/QTLs governing tolerance to abiotic stresses and availability of DNA markers linked to these traits has opened up opportunities for breeders to transfer the favorable alleles into widely grown rice varieties through marker-assisted backcross breeding (MABB). A large multi-institutional project, "From QTL to variety: marker-assisted breeding of abiotic stress tolerant rice varieties with major QTLs for drought, submergence and salt tolerance" was initiated in 2010 with funding support from Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, in collaboration with International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. The main focus of this project is to improve rice productivity in the fragile ecosystems of eastern, northeastern and southern part of the country, which bear the brunt of one or the other abiotic stresses frequently. Seven consistent QTLs for grain yield under drought, namely, qDTY1.1, qDTY2.1, qDTY2.2, qDTY3.1, qDTY3.2, qDTY9.1 and qDTY12.1 are being transferred into submergence tolerant versions of three high yielding mega rice varieties, Swarna-Sub1, Samba Mahsuri-Sub1 and IR 64-Sub1. To address the problem of complete submergence due to flash floods in the major river basins, the Sub1 gene is being transferred into ten highly popular locally adapted rice varieties namely, ADT 39, ADT 46, Bahadur, HUR 105, MTU 1075, Pooja, Pratikshya, Rajendra Mahsuri, Ranjit, and Sarjoo 52. Further, to address the problem of soil salinity, Saltol, a major QTL for salt tolerance is being transferred into seven popular locally adapted rice varieties, namely, ADT 45, CR 1009, Gayatri, MTU 1010, PR 114, Pusa 44 and Sarjoo 52. Genotypic background selection is being done after BC2F2 stage using an in-house designed 50K SNP chip on a set of twenty lines for each combination, identified with phenotypic similarity in the field to the recipient parent. Near-isogenic lines with more than 90% similarity to the recipient parent are now in advanced generation field trials. These climate smart varieties are expected to improve rice productivity in the adverse ecologies and contribute to the farmer's livelihood.