Background In Bangladesh, farmers often initiate small- to medium-scale poultry production ventures with minimal to no prior training, experience or formal qualifications. The poultry industry's rapid expansion poses a growing threat to human and animal health. It is, therefore, imperative to educate farmers using the One Health approach, recognizing the interconnectedness of human, animal and environmental health.Objectives This study aimed to train farmers with an evaluation framework to assess their knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding poultry biosecurity and management. The study also assessed the effectiveness of the training programme using the Kirkpatrick training evaluation model.Methods The training intervention study was a series of 2-day trainings with a survey before and after the training. Farmers were selected from small to medium-scale broiler and Sonali farming sectors. The data were analysed using R-software.Results A total of 183 farmers participated in the training. They had good knowledge regarding correct brooding temperature, poultry vaccines, antibiotic names and whom to contact for advice on poultry-related problems before training. The training was effective in improving knowledge gain for day-old chick selection, causes of vaccine failure, the exact function of antibiotics, and antimicrobial resistance. A single training intervention is inadequate to change farmer behaviours, and continuous communication is therefore necessary.Conclusions This study provides empirical evidence on the pre-existing knowledge and the impact of training using different pedagogical approaches on biosecurity and the production of poultry farmers with diverse educational backgrounds and varied experience in farming-aligning Kirkpatrick model.

Poultry production is rapidly expanding across South and Southeast Asia to meet rising demand for human consumption. Campylobacterjejuni and Campylobacter coli are the leading causes of human bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide, with poultry serving as a primary reservoir posing significant risks to food safety and public health. This study investigated the genetic diversity of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates from chicken sampled in farms, along with markets (live bird markets and shops) and slaughtering facilities from Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. Core-genome multilocus sequence typing revealed strong geographical clustering of C. coli isolates, dominated by ST-828 clonal complex lineages largely confined within national borders. In contrast, C. jejuni isolates clustered more diffusely into multiple clonal complexes (ST-21, ST-45 and ST-257) that were shared between countries, reflecting greater ecological adaptability and frequent gene flow. Permutational multivariate ANOVA (PERMANOVA) supported these patterns; geography explained more genomic variation for C. coli than C. jejuni, while poultry breed type and production site contributed little overall. An exception was Sri Lanka, where C. jejuni showed an apparent ecological segregation between markets and slaughtering facilities, albeit with a limited within-country sample size. Genomic SNP-based analysis highlighted recombination as a significant evolutionary force maintaining distinct country-specific lineages in C. coli, while supporting a broader geographic mixing of C. jejuni. Pangenome analyses were consistent with more geographically structured accessory profiles in C. coli and a more dispersed pattern in C. jejuni, compatible with broader regional dissemination. Comparison with global reference genomes showed these isolates clustered with strains from diverse host species, highlighting the ability of C. jejuni to occupy multiple ecological niches and spread across borders. The distinct patterns of spatially clustered and dispersed lineage distributions for C. coli and C.jejuni, respectively, highlight the importance of understanding species-specific transmission dynamics to inform targeted intervention strategies. This understanding underscores the need for interventions along poultry production and distribution networks that can effectively mitigate the risks associated with campylobacteriosis.

Abstract We screened 558 chicken breast meat samples from farms (at the end of production) and endpoints (sale/slaughter outlets) in India (Gujarat state), Bangladesh, and northern Vietnam for 69 veterinary antimicrobials and tested outcomes with the EU maximum residue levels. The prevalence of non-compliant samples declined from farms to endpoints, where it was 3.7%-8.6% (vs 0.05–0.09% in the EU for 2021-2022). Strengthened residue testing and stakeholder awareness of withdrawal periods are needed as poultry production intensifies.

INTRODUCTION:Biosecurity measures are crucial for disease prevention and sustainable poultry farming; however, many farmers in Bangladesh do not have access to training in biosecurity and farm management. This study evaluated whether biosecurity training, delivered within a One Health framework, would lead to farmers adopting improved biosecurity measures in their farming practices. METHODOLOGY:The impact of a 2-day training programme was evaluated on 88 farms across 12 upazilas in the Chattogram district, with assessments conducted immediately after the training and at least 4 months later. Data collection involved farm visits, using a researcher-led questionnaire and evaluation through direct observation. RESULTS:The t-test results showed an absolute increase in mean farm scores from 12.3 to 14.8, representing 9% improvement in farm biosecurity and management practices, irrespective of the farm production system, farmers' education and experience levels. Descriptive analysis indicated that improvement percentage (IP) in operational biosecurity, such as cleaning feeders and drinkers (65%), using separate clothes and shoes (64%) and waste management (58%) were the most improved practices. Dealer-based Sonali farms showed higher IP for disinfectant use (83%), sick bird isolation (88%) and improved brooding management (46%) (p < 0.05). Farmers with the highest education level maintained 2-week intervals between two batches (IP 33%, p = 0.004). Less-experienced farmers improved shed cleaning processes more (42%) and more-experienced farmers improved the feed storage system (55%) and vaccine transportation (38%) (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION:The results indicate that using a One Health approach in training can effectively influence various aspects of farm biosecurity and management practices, leading to positive behavioural changes. SUMMARY:Collaborative training using a One Health approach can change biosecurity practices and poultry farmer behaviours, reducing zoonoses and public health. Financial constraints are a major hindrance for poultry farmers to adopt proper biosecurity measures; however, training can influence the farmers to some extent. Operational biosecurity measures are more adoptable by the farmers, irrespective of farm types.

H9N2 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are a major concern for the poultry sector and human health in countries where this subtype is endemic. By fitting a model simulating H9N2 AIV transmission to data from a field experiment, we characterise the epidemiology of the virus in a live bird market in Bangladesh. Many supplied birds arrive already exposed to H9N2 AIVs, resulting in many broiler chickens entering the market as infected, and many indigenous backyard chickens entering with pre-existing immunity. Most susceptible chickens become infected within one day spent at the market, owing to high levels of viral transmission within market and short latent periods, as brief as 5.3 hours. Although H9N2 AIV transmission can be substantially reduced under moderate levels of cleaning and disinfection, effective risk mitigation also requires a range of additional interventions targeting markets and other nodes along the poultry production and distribution network.

The prevalence of avian influenza viruses is commonly found to increase dramatically as birds are transported from farms to live bird markets. Viral transmission dynamics along marketing chains are, however, poorly understood. To address this gap, we implemented a controlled field experiment altering chicken supply to a live bird market in Chattogram, Bangladesh. Broilers and backyard chickens traded along altered (intervention) and conventional (control) marketing chains were tested for avian influenza viruses at different time points. Upon arrival at the live bird market, the odds of detecting avian influenza viruses did not differ between control and intervention groups. However, 12 h later, intervention group odds were lower, particularly for broilers, indicating that viral shedding in live bird markets resulted partly from infections occurring during transport and trade. Curtailing avian influenza virus prevalence in live bird markets requires mitigating risk in marketing chain nodes preceding chickens' delivery at live bird markets.

Antimicrobial resistance has emerged as a significant health problem worldwide, including in Bangladesh, where chickens are an important protein source for human nutrition. One of the factors accelerating the development of antimicrobial resistance is the inappropriate use of antimicrobials on commercial chicken farms. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2019 on 140 commercial chicken farms in the Chattogram district of Bangladesh to investigate the association between antimicrobial use and resistance in Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. cultured from cloacal swabs of chickens and from the poultry shed environment. All E. coli and Salmonella spp. isolates were resistant to multiple antimicrobial classes, including those categorized as “Highest Priority Critically Important Antimicrobials” for human medicine. Notably, resistance was observed in E. coli isolates from farms that did not use these antimicrobial classes in the current production cycle. For example, although quinolones were not used on 43.9% of E. coli positive farms, 95.7% of these farms had quinolone-resistant E. coli isolates. The results of the path analysis revealed that there was a “direct effect” of the frequency of antimicrobial usage on “high” resistance, with resistance increasing when antimicrobials were administered more frequently (β = 0.28, p = 0.002). There was a “direct effect” of the purpose of antimicrobial use on “low” resistance, with resistance marginally decreasing when antimicrobials were administered solely for therapeutic use (β = −0.17, p = 0.062), but increasing when they were used prophylactically. Overall, the study results could be used to educate farmers on better practices for antimicrobial administration, and to guide government agencies to update policies on antimicrobial use and resistance surveillance in the poultry sector of Bangladesh.

Bangladesh's commercial poultry production is growing rapidly, including the commercial processing of poultry. This expansion of poultry processing plants is fueled by the belief that this sub-sector provides safer food and has less food-borne disease risks compared to traditional live bird markets (LBMs). The purpose of this study is to describe Bangladesh's dressed and processed poultry production and distribution network (PDN), identify what and where quality control occurs, and suggest where improvements could be made. Engaging with PDN for dressed and processed poultry, we used in-depth interviews with key informants to identify the stakeholders involved and their connections with other poultry PDNs. In addition, we mapped out the supply and distribution of dressed and processed poultry and quality control processes occurring throughout the network. We argue that dressed and processed poultry PDNs are closely connected with traditional PDNs such as LBMs, with multiple crossover points between them. Also, there is a lack of consistency in quality control testing and a lack of meat traceability. Consequently, perceptions of dressed and processed poultry being safer than birds from LBMs needs to be treated with caution. Otherwise, unsubstantiated consumer confidence in dressed poultry may inadvertently increase the risk of food-borne diseases from these products.

This study explores the impacts of COVID-19 and its associated containment measures on behavior and attitudes of poultry product consumers in Bangladesh. Between September and November 2020, 96 poultry shoppers were recruited from live bird markets (LBMs) and super-shops in the Chattogram metropolitan area and asked about their perceptions, knowledge, and safety concerns regarding purchasing, handling, and consuming chicken and eggs during the pandemic. The study identifies that, consumers experienced major price fluctuations in poultry items, particularly in LBMs, during lockdown and movement restrictions. Government interventions affected their ability to access poultry products and brought significant changes in shopping routines. Compared to pre-COVID situation, there was a decline in chicken purchase frequency, and a shift in where consumers chose to source poultry from, opting for providers within close proximity to their homes or home delivery owing to movement restrictions. Consumers reported taking additional precautions, such as extra washing or prolonged boiling, when preparing chicken and eggs, which were significantly correlated with observed changes in purchasing. Rumors about poultry spreading COVID-19 were mostly spread on social media and affected some people's knowledge, attitudes, and routine practices regarding poultry and poultry products, though to a lesser extent than expected. A Google Trend interest score was used to evaluate people's search interests for connections between coronavirus and chickens or other animals, revealing a trend to look up the facts online during the pandemic, particularly around festival periods. During such emergencies, the government should ensure an adequate supply of protein sources like poultry and curb rumors promptly.

ABSTR ACTCOVID-19.As ivermectin has been extensively used in veterinary medicine for decades, data were obtained from the literature and from previous assessments performed by regulatory agencies including the Food and Drug Administration, European Medicines Agencies and the World Health Organization.Ivermectin is also widely used in humans for treatment of onchocerciasis and other parasitic diseases at single or repeated doses up to 800 μg/kg BW.The assessment included human and animal data that were tentatively extrapolated to man.Results: Our investigations demonstrated that 400 μg/kg BW given orally for 3 consecutive days to patients with COVID-19 is unlikely to induce any significant toxicity.However, the four PK/PD models developed showed conclusively that concentrations likely to inactivate the COVID-19 virus would not be reached using the recommended ivermectin regimen.Our PK/PD models showed that the dose required to exert virucidal effects in patients suffering from COVID-19 would be 50 to 500 times higher.Such high doses would be lethal. Conclusion: PK/PD investigations based on the extensive knowledge of ivermectin in veterinary medicine were useful in predicting unlikely clinical efficacy in patients with COVID-19.

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) spread rapidly from China to most other countries around the world in early 2020 killing millions of people. To prevent virus spread, world governments implemented a variety of response measures. This paper’s objectives were to discuss the country’s adopted measures to combat the virus through June 2020, identify gaps in the measures’ effectiveness, and offer possible mitigations to those gaps. The measures taken included screening device deployment across international air and land ports, flight suspensions and closures from COVID-19 affected countries, and declaration and extension of a national public holiday (equivalent to lockdowns in other countries). Identified gaps were test kit, PPE, ICU beds, and ventilator shortages, limited public awareness, and insufficient coordination and collaboration among national and international partners. Proper and timely risk mapping, preparedness, communication, coordination, and collaboration among governments and organizations, and public awareness and engagement would have provided sufficient COVID-19 mitigation in Bangladesh.

The COVID-19 pandemic has severely affected numerous economic sectors across the world, including livestock production. This study investigates how the pandemic has impacted the poultry production and distribution network (PDN), analyses stakeholders' changing circumstances, and provides recommendations for rapid and long-term resilience. This is based on a literature review, social media monitoring, and key informant interviews ( n = 36) from across the poultry sector in Bangladesh. These included key informants from breeder farms and hatcheries, pharmaceutical suppliers, feed companies, dealers, farmers, middlemen, and vendors. We show that the poultry sector was damaged by the COVID-19 pandemic, partly as a result of the lockdown and also by rumors that poultry and their products could transmit the disease. This research shows that hardly any stakeholder escaped hardship. Disrupted production and transportation, declining consumer demand and volatile markets brought huge financial difficulties, even leading to the permanent closure of many farms. We show that the extent of the damage experienced during the first months of COVID-19 was a consequence of how interconnected stakeholders and businesses are across the poultry sector. For example, a shift in consumer demand in live bird markets has ripple effects that impact the price of goods and puts pressure on traders, middlemen, farmers, and input suppliers alike. We show how this interconnectedness across all levels of the poultry industry in Bangladesh makes it fragile and that this fragility is not a consequence of COVID-19 but has been revealed by it. This warrants long-term consideration beyond the immediate concerns surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic.

Objective: In developing countries, such as Bangladesh, the live bird market (LBM) is a vital location for the trading of live poultry. The study was carried out in nine LBMs located around Bangladesh to ascertain the present regulations and procedures governing their operation. Additionally, the responsibilities and levels of engagement of the stakeholders were determined. Materials and Methods: The data were gathered through the use of a semi-structured interview guide. Thematic analysis was used to code the interview transcripts iteratively. Results: The findings indicated that the government was directly and indirectly involved in the leasing process of the markets. A market in this country is divided into numerous sectors, including LBM, fish market, vegetable market, and grocery stores. A market's hygienic condition is highly dependent on market authority's decisions. In some markets, market officials conducted routine sanitary inspections. Veterinarians played a little role in the inspection procedure. Conclusion: There is no adequate, functional monitoring system to ensure that LBMs adhere to cleanliness and adequate and functional biosecurity. Biosecurity enhancements, effective cleaning programs, and regular monitoring by relevant authorities are critical for LBMs in Bangladesh.

In this paper, we identify behaviours in live bird commodity chains in Chattogram, Bangladesh, which may influence the risk of pathogen emergence and transmission: the nature of poultry trade, value appropriation and selling sick or infected birds. Examining the reasons why actors engage in these behaviours, we emphasise the politics of constraints within a context of real-world decisions, governed by existential and pragmatic agency. Focusing on contact zones and entanglement, analysing patron-client relationships and precarious circumstances, we argue that agency and structure specific to the Bangladeshi context produce a risk environment. Structural constraints may reinforce risky occupational practises and limit individual agency. Structural constraints need to be addressed in order to tackle animal and zoonotic disease risk along live animal commodity chains.

Poultry production is a valuable source of nutritious food and income and is considered a crucial part of global development. This is especially important for countries such as Bangladesh where levels of hunger and childhood stunting remain high. However, in many low- and middle-income countries poultry production remains dominated by small to medium scale enterprises operating with poor farm biosecurity associated with poultry and zoonotic disease risks. We aimed to characterize the structure of poultry production in Bangladesh in order to identify the underlying structural factors and resulting practices which create risk environments for emergence, persistence and transmission of infectious diseases. Using the concept of a production and distribution network (PDN), we conducted a review of the literature, 27 in-depth interviews with key-informants and stakeholders, and 20 structured interviews with poultry distributors to map the ways which poultry are raised, distributed and marketed in Bangladesh. Findings indicate that the PDN can be considered in the context of four major sub-networks, based on the types of chickens; broadly indigenous, cross-bred, exotic broiler, and layer chickens. These sub-networks do not exist in isolation; their transactional nodes - actors and sites - are dynamic and numerous interactions occur within and between the PDN. Our findings suggest that the growth in small and medium scale poultry enterprises is conducted within ‘fragile’ enterprises by inexperienced and poorly supported producers, many of whom lack capacity for the level of system upgrading needed to mitigate disease risk. Efforts could be taken to address the structural underlying factors identified, such as the poor bargaining power of producers and lack of access to independent credit and indemnity schemes, as a way to reduce the fragility of the PDN and increase its resilience to disease threats. This knowledge on the PDN structure and function provide the essential basis to better study the generation, mitigation and consequences of disease risks associated to livestock, including the analysis of potential hotspots for disease emergence and transmission.

Live animal markets are known hotspots of zoonotic disease emergence. To mitigate those risks, we need to understand how networks shaped by trading practices influence disease spread. Yet, those practices are rarely recorded in high-risk settings. Through a large cross-sectional study, we assessed the potential impact of live poultry trading networks’ structures on avian influenza transmission dynamics in Bangladesh. Networks promoted mixing between chickens sourced from different farming systems and geographical locations, fostering co-circulation of viral strains of diverse origins in markets. Viral transmission models suggested that the observed rise in viral prevalence from farms to markets was unlikely explained by intra-market transmission alone, but substantially influenced by transmission occurring in upstream network nodes. Disease control interventions should therefore alter the entire network structures. However, as networks differed between chicken types and city supplied, standardised interventions are unlikely to be effective, and should be tailored to local structural characteristics.

This paper anthropologically explores how key actors in the Chittagong live bird trading network perceive biosecurity and risk in relation to avian influenza between production sites, market maker scenes and outlets. They pay attention to the past and the present, rather than the future, downplaying the need for strict risk management, as outbreaks have not been reported frequently for a number of years. This is analysed as ‘temporalities of risk perception regarding biosecurity’, through Black Swan theory, the idea that unexpected events with major effects are often inappropriately rationalized (Taleb in The Black Swan. The impact of the highly improbable, Random House, New York, 2007 ). This incorporates a sociocultural perspective on risk, emphasizing the contexts in which risk is understood, lived, embodied and experienced. Their risk calculation is explained in terms of social consent, practical intelligibility and convergence of constraints and motivation. The pragmatic and practical orientation towards risk stands in contrast to how risk is calculated in the avian influenza preparedness paradigm. It is argued that disease risk on the ground has become a normalized part of everyday business, as implied in Black Swan theory. Risk which is calculated retrospectively is unlikely to encourage investment in biosecurity and, thereby, points to the danger of unpredictable outlier events.

An epidemiological assessment of clinical poultry cases recorded through the existing passive surveillance at Kishoreganj District Veterinary Hospital during February–March 2016 was performed. A total of 200 cases (87 layers, 80 broilers, 21 ducks, and 12 pigeons) were included in this evaluation. The present study attempted to demonstrate the usefulness of passive surveillance data in quantifying the relative burden of poultry cases and their distribution along with drug prescription patterns. The cases were diagnosed based on clinical history, clinical signs, and observable post-mortem lesions by the registered veterinarian or intern veterinarian. The most prevalent diseases in chickens were infectious bursal disease (IBD) (31.7%; CI (confidence interval) 24.7–39.3%), coccidiosis (22.8%; CI 16.6–29.8%), Newcastle disease (ND) (21.6%; CI 15.5–28.5%), and coli-enteritis (8.4%; CI 4.6–13.6%). The most prevalent disease in ducks was duck plague (DP) (76.6%; CI 52.8–91.7%). Newcastle disease was most prevalent (66.7%; CI 34.8–90.0%) in pigeons. Infectious bursal disease, aspergillosis, and colibacillosis respectively were seen in a higher proportion of cases in broiler chickens than in layer chickens (58.7%, 12.5%, and 11.2% vs. 6.9%, 1.1%, and 3.4%; p ≤ 0.05). Contrarily, ND was seen in greater proportion of cases in layer chickens (32.1%) than in broiler chickens (10.0%) (p < 0.001). Infectious bursal disease, ND, coccidiosis, and aspergillosis were higher in older age broilers than in younger broilers (p ≤ 0.05). Antibiotics were often used to treat the poultry diseases such as trimethoprim with sulpha drugs (41%), ciprofloxacin (39%), sulphadiazine (27.5%), and erythromycin (26%). Through the present study, we can see how a passive surveillance system would be an effective tool for delineating disease distributions and common treatment regimens, thus helping to mitigate disease prevalence.

We conducted a cross-sectional study in live bird markets (LBMs) in Dhaka and Chittagong, Bangladesh, to estimate the prevalence of avian influenza A(H5) and A(H9) viruses in different types of poultry and environmental areas by using Bayesian hierarchical logistic regression models. We detected these viruses in nearly all LBMs. Prevalence of A(H5) virus was higher in waterfowl than in chickens, whereas prevalence of A(H9) virus was higher in chickens than in waterfowl and, among chicken types, in industrial broilers than in cross-breeds and indigenous breeds. LBMs with >1 wholesaler were more frequently contaminated by A(H5) virus than retail-only LBMs. Prevalence of A(H9) virus in poultry and level of environmental contamination were also higher in LBMs with >1 wholesaler. We found a high level of circulation of both avian influenza viruses in surveyed LBMs. Prevalence was influenced by type of poultry, environmental site, and trading.