Grain size measurements and sediment production measurements are basic tools for understanding transport dynamics and fluvial hydrodynamic regimes, and for evaluating stream behavior, erosion rates and the effects of hydraulic structure on fluvial processes. To determine the hydrodynamic conditions and depositional environments of Wadi Al Lith in Makkah, 22 bed sediment samples were collected in January 2025. These were analyzed using the Linear Discriminant Function (LDF), Passega diagram, and bivariate plots. Results show sediments are trimodal to polymodal in both upstream and midstream sections. Samples show unimodal midstream and bimodal downstream features. With proportions of 50%, 27.2%, 4.62%, 9.09%, and 9.09%, respectively, the samples are categorized into five classes or faces according to Folk's classification system: sandy gravel, gravely sand, gravely muddy sand, slightly gravely sand, and sand. The graphic mean (MZ) values of the Wadi Al Lith's sediments range from −3.14 to 2.26, indicating coarse gravel to fine sand, with an average of −0.40 (very coarse sand). With an average of 2.26 (very poorly sorted), the evaluated Wadi Al Lith samples exhibit moderately to very poorly sorted standard deviations (sorting, σi), with values ranging from 0.71 to 3.8. The skewness (Sk) ranges from very coarse to very fine, with values in the data set from −0.65 to 0.38. The data generally exhibit a symmetric distribution, with a Sk value of −0.02. With an average kurtosis (K) of 0.95 (mesokurtic), the kurtosis values range from 0.56 to 1.65, indicating a very platykurtic to very leptokurtic distribution.

The Kimmeridgian Arab Formation (D Member) represents one of the most significant petroleum reservoirs in the world. The Degla section, situated in the eastern part of the North Riyadh UNESCO Global Geopark, offers outstanding natural exposures that preserve a diverse array of carbonate lithofacies and a rich assemblage of trace fossils. This study investigates the vertical facies transitions, depositional environments, and ichnological characteristics of the Arab-D Member, utilizing the Degla outcrops in the Eastern North Riyadh UNESCO Global Geopark as a surface analogue for characterizing the world's largest subsurface reservoir. Detailed sedimentological and petrographic analyses reveal a complex interplay of microbial, skeletal, and evaporitic facies, reflecting the dynamic nature of shallow-marine depositional systems. The results enhance our understanding of reservoir heterogeneity, diagenetic evolution, and the broader significance of the Arab-D succession in terms of petroleum geoheritage.

The North Riyadh UNESCO Global Geopark (NRUGGp) was established in 2025. It occupies an area of about 3221 km2 in central Saudi Arabia and conserves 20 geosites of exceptional geological significance. This paper aims to document and interpret the key geoheritage features of the NRUGGp. These include prominent escarpments, diverse structural features, a rich fossil record, and dynamic Quaternary landscapes. Notably, the Geopark encompasses: (1) the Jurassic Tuwaiq Mountains, which contain extensive carbonate platforms rich in macrofossils and represent exceptional ancient reefal ecosystems, petroleum reservoir rocks, and organic-rich source rocks. These outcrops provide valuable surface analogs for subsurface hydrocarbon systems and include one of the most prolific Jurassic source rocks responsible for generating a significant portion of the petroleum in the Arabian Basin. They serve as natural laboratories for studying the complete petroleum system, from shallow marine deposition to modern arid weathering processes; (2) extensive karst systems developed through differential weathering of resistant Jurassic limestone and softer argillaceous beds; and (3) Quaternary landforms, such as dunes, sabkhas, and oases. The NRUGGp integrates scientific research, geoeducation, and sustainable ecotourism, contributing to Saudi Vision 2030 through community-based conservation and geoscience outreach.

The upper Cretaceous-Paleocene Aruma Formation is a notable hydrocarbon-bearing formation of the Arabian Plate. This study examines the facies, depositional architecture, and diagenetic history of the Aruma Formation by synthesizing field and petrographic data. Field observations show that the formation is composed of three members which are Lower Khanasir member, the middle Hajajah member and upper Lina member. The Khanasir member is up to 64 m thick in the study area. This member is mostly composed of shale and glauconitic sandstone at the basal part while nodular burrowed limestone is present in the middle and upper part of this member. The middle Hajajah member is composed of marl and limestone which contains domal platy scleractinian corals facies upward. The upper Lina member is 40 m thick which is predominantly shale-interbedded with limestone-marl. The upper carbonate unit is massive bedded limestone, which is creamy, soft, argillaceous, and partially dolomitized Petrographically, the formation mostly consists of wackestone, packstone, and rudstone microfacies in the studied region. The formation is affected by diagenetic events, altering the reservoir characteristics. The processes include bioturbation, micritization, neomorphism, dissolution, and dolomitization. The porosity types in the Aruma Formation include vuggy, mouldic, fenestral, and dissolution porosity having porosity values ranging from 2.5 to 9.36 % and permeability from 0.27 to 11.53mD primarily developed by bioturbation, dissolution and fracturing. The reservoir quality of the formation is significantly enhanced by bioturbation and dissolution, which have created highly permeable zones within the Khanasir member; hence, these zones should be prioritized for future hydrocarbon exploration.

The Upper Cretaceous Aruma Formation (Campanian-Danian) of central Saudi Arabia consists of a carbonatedominated ramp succession with interbedded limestone dolomite and, subordinate shale. However, the dolomitization history and its possible mechanism are still poorly constrained. The present study deals with the dolomitization mechanism of Aruma Formation by using multiproxy field and lab techniques. Field observations show that dolomite occurs mainly in the middle and upper part of Aruma members, notably as argillaceous and massive dolomitic beds in the Hajajah and Lina members. Petrographically, Aruma dolomites form a crystalline matrix and rhombic cement, enveloping undolomitized micrite infills. Three types of dolomites are observed: (i) D1, (ii) D2, and (iii) D3. The crystal size of dolomite is increasing from D1 to D3, indicating the fluid evolution from marine, meteoric to hydrothermal conditions. Based on the stable isotopic signatures, there is a clear evolution in fluid composition and temperature through successive diagenetic phases. The stable isotope data reveal a systematic trend toward oxygen isotope depletion from early to late diagenetic phases, revealing progressive temperature increase and fluid evolution. The early replacive dolomite D1 shows delta 18O values ranging from (-3.89%o to -2.41%o) and delta 13C from (+1.30%o to +3.59%o), suggesting dolomitization in near-marine conditions. The subsequent phase, D2, records delta 18O values between (-6.16%o and - 4.88%o) and delta 13C values ranges from (+4.73%o to +2.11%o), indicating warmer, evolved fluids during shallow burial conditions. Further depletion in delta 18O values is observed in D 3 (-7.19%o to -5.02%o), with variables delta 13C (-1.56%o to +2.15%o), indicating dolomitization burial-related conditions of its formation. Thus, reflux of hypersaline water and mixing-zone processes at sequence boundaries are the preferred models for Aruma dolomite formation, rather than deep burial or hydrothermal sources. The findings of the present study can be utilized for multiphase dolomitization in the comparable lithostratigraphic units of the Arabian Plate.

The evaluation of the diagenetic processes is essential in order to comprehend the heterogeneities of the carbonate reservoirs. Different diagenetic processes, especially the carbonate cements, have drastically changed the Yamama Formation, a large reservoir formation in the Saudi Arabian region. The current study aims to assess several calcite cements by using field, petrographic and geochemical analyses. Field studies from three outcrops show that the formation is thin to thick bedded limestone with small amount of shale and marl units. According to petrographic analyses, the cements are primarily composed of dolomite, blocky, drusy, granular, isopachous rim, and syntaxial overgrowth. According to the cathodoluminescence studies, diagenesis primarily occurred in a closed system with no major and trace element fluctuation or exchange. Carbon isotopic values show positive values (delta 13C V-PDB = 0.23 parts per thousand to 3.19 parts per thousand) falling within the range Cretaceous marine signatures suggesting no influence from the meteoric water. Oxygen isotope show negative values (delta 18O V-PDB= -12.32 parts per thousand to -1.31 parts per thousand) showing depletion from the Cretaceous marine seawater suggesting diagenetic alteration in different environments. Three stages of evolution-eogenetic, mesogenetic, and telogenetic-are included in the paragenetic sequence. Although their permeability is modest because of limited pore interconnectivity, intraparticle microporosity and intrafossil porosity have improved the overall quality of the reservoir.

The manuscript discusses using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to distinguish the sources of radioactive and nitrate contamination in 33 groundwater samples from southern Tunisia. The study focuses on the Gafsa basin, an area known for its phosphate mining activities and significant agricultural use, both of which contribute to the contamination of groundwater resources. The radioactivity in the water is primarily attributed to phosphate mining and deep groundwater sources from the North Western Sahara Aquifer System (NWSAS). Additionally, the nitrate contamination is largely due to agricultural runoff, though secondary sources related to phosphate mining are also considered.Through the application of PCA, the study was able to classify the groundwater samples into different groups based on their contamination sources: phosphate mining, combined agricultural and mining activities, fossil geothermal waters, and low-agricultural areas. The PCA revealed that samples most affected by anthropogenic activities exhibited high levels of radium and nitrate, with contamination patterns correlating with specific environmental and chemical factors.This analysis underscores the complexity of groundwater contamination in the region and highlights the need for targeted mitigation strategies to address radioactive and nitrate pollution in southern Tunisia. The study provides critical insights for managing water quality in areas with similar environmental challenges.

The late Paleozoic Tobra Formation is an exclusive rock unit of the Salt Range which marks the end of a long period of nondeposition within the Gondwana domain of the Indian Plate. In this study, the lithofacies, petrographic, and geochemical properties of the Tobra Formation are presented to get a comprehensive understanding of the depositional environment, provenance, and paleoclimatic conditions. Three outcrop sections of Western to Eastern Salt Range were selected. Field studies show that the Tobra Formation is composed of six lithofacies that are broadly classified into three facies associations representing alluvial-plain depositional settings characterized by the following distinct depositional elements: (a) alluvial-fan debris-flow deposits, (b) alluvial-fan stream-flow deposits, and (c) overbank-flow deposits. These depositional elements formed as a result of local glaciation in paleogeographically close proximity with a general trend from southwest to northeast and affected the region up to the Eastern Salt Range. Furthermore, the petrographic and geochemical data indicate that lithologic units of the Tobra Formation show a submature to mature nature with characteristic lithic arenite and feldspathic litharenite to the sublitharenite petrofacies. Moreover, in the paleogeographic reconstruction of the Indian Plate during the late Paleozoic, the Tobra Formation was deposited during active tectonics with recycled orogenic phases influenced by glacial to glaciofluvial conditions. The sources of these sediments were igneous rocks, metasediments, and sandstones, more probably derived from the basement-related shield rocks. The majority of glaciofluvial signatures evidence that the Salt Range, Pakistan, occupied the paleogeographic position a little away from the maximum glacial extent during the late Permian as compared with the time-equivalent glacial units, such as the Al-Khalata Formation of Oman and the Talchir Boulder Beds of India.

This study documents the comprehensive work on the fault and fracture controlled dolomitization in the Jurassic carbonates of Samana Suk Fm which have been investigated in detail to determine their macro to micro scale characteristics, origin of fluids and relative timing of the dolomitization. Field studies indicate that dolostone bodies occur parallel and inclined to weak planes such as fault and fractures. They usually crosscut stratigraphy forming sharp dolomite fronts. Microscopic observations reveal fine to coarse textured dolomite found in fractures, veins, and vugs. These are: (i) fine crystalline planer subhedral to anhedral dolomite (RD-I) have crystal size ranging from 20 to 40 μm (ii) medium crystalline planer subhedral to euhedral dolomite (RD-II) with crystal size ranging from 100 to 200 μm. The crystals are usually well formed with dark cores and clear rims (iii) coarse crystalline non-planar dolomite (RD-III) with crystals size ranging from 200 to 400 μm. (iv) saddle dolomite (SD) with non-planer dolomite with crystals size ranging from 200 to 400 μm. Presence of saddle dolomite, coarse crystalline interlocking texture of other dolomite phases designate presence of hydrothermal fluids for their formation. Stable isotope data of limestone have values: δ13C: – 0.05‰ to + 1.32‰ V-PDB and δ18O: –7.13 to – 0.73‰ showing depletion in δ18O values from the Jurassic marine signature. The dolomites RD-I to RD-III have values: δ13C: – 3.56‰ to + 2.09‰ and δ18O: –8.65 to –3.16‰) showing non-depleted δ13C values and depleted δ18O values. The saddle dolomite (SD) showing highest depleted values in terms of oxygen isotopes designates their formation from hydrothermal fluids. The 87Sr/86Sr values of micrite matrix is in the range of Jurassic marine signatures while dolomite phases (RD and SD) showing higher values as compared to the marine signatures indicate the dolomitizing fluid interaction with more radiogenic sources. All the dolomite phases are crosscut by the low amplitude stylolites demonstrates that these dolomites are formed at shallow burial depths. At this time necessary heat for hydrothermal dolomitzation was provided by the thermal convection produced due to the Late Jurassic rifting in the Indian plate which have transferred the warm brines to the near surface carbonates. These hot brines were convected from the basal sandstone units through the normal faults. Furthermore, these hot fluids were stopped by the above lying shale units creating necessary thermodynamic conditions for the dolomitization.

The Atlas Mountain chain is known for its structural complexity. This belt is characterized by significant geological processes, making it one of the more tectonized areas in the MENA Region. Classical methods of neotectonic assessment frequently fall short in providing the precision required to analyze the intricate nature of tectonic processes. This limitation highlights the necessity for more advanced methodologies to enhance our understanding of these complexities. In this study, we assess the tectonic dynamics of the Ouenza region by integrating seven geomorphic indices: basin asymmetry, transverse topography, mountain front sinuosity, drainage basin shape, stream-length gradients, hypsometric integral, and relative tectonic uplift. To rank the watersheds according to their tectonic activity, we employed the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method. This approach allows for an accurate evaluation of tectonic influences in the area. The results indicate that the hypsometric integral varies from 0.07 to 0.44, while stream-length gradient analyses range from 26.91 to 183.14, suggesting low tectonic activity in the region. In contrast, other indices reveal more significant tectonic influences: sub-basin asymmetry ranges from 16.94 to 78.15, mountain front sinuosity varies between 0.95 and 1.27, drainage basin shape spans from 1.01 to 4.98, and relative tectonic uplift measures between 1.17 and 1.44. These findings collectively suggest moderate to high tectonic activity in the area. The integrated analysis of these indices, encapsulated in a single Index of Active Tectonics (IAT), indicates that the study area is undergoing high levels of tectonic activity. The TOPSIS method has effectively prioritized the sub-watersheds, pinpointing regions of significant tectonic concern. This methodology provides a robust framework for assessing tectonic activity, thereby improving scientific understanding and facilitating practical measures for hazard mitigation and preparedness in tectonically active areas. The abstract provides a comprehensive overview of the study’s main findings and methodology. It highlights various geomorphic indices utilized in the analysis, including the Asymmetry Factor, Drainage Basin Shape Index, Stream Length Gradient Index, Mountain Front Sinuosity, Relative Tectonic Uplift, and Hypsometric Integral. These indices are instrumental in identifying active tectonic deformation within mountainous or watershed regions, showcasing how the landscape responds to tectonic activities. The geomorphic indicators are integrated into three statistical models: the IRAT, TOPSIS, and FAHP. Each model is tailored to facilitate informed decision-making regarding the development and assessment of a region’s tectonic structures. The IRAT categorizes morphometric parameters, while the TOPSIS ranks sub-basins based on their similarity to ideal conditions. The FAHP employs fuzzy logic to compute relative tectonic scores, enhancing the accuracy of the prioritization process. The output maps generated from these methods, displayed on the right side of the paper, illustrate the spatial distribution of tectonic activities across the region. They are crucial for pinpointing priority areas for further geodynamic studies and hazard assessments. The graphical abstract underscores the benefits of employing multi-objective decision-making tools to analyze geomorphic data, ultimately contributing to a deeper understanding of tectonic influences and facilitating proactive management strategies. Tectonic Impact: A 30-year analysis shows strong tectonic effects on the morphology of watersheds in the Ouenza region. Watershed Prioritization: The TOPSIS model successfully ranks watersheds by morphometric factors linked to tectonic activity. Enhanced Accuracy: Using Triangular Fuzzy Numbers improves the reliability of prioritizing parameters for tectonic susceptibility. Geomorphic Insights: Key parameters reveal active tectonic processes, with around 70

Groundwater resources in the Tunisian-Algerian border region predominantly originate from karstified limestone formations of the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Eocene, contributing 13.5

There has been growing interest in erosion processes and the transport of materials by rivers due to their significance in land use planning and environmental management. Evaluating sediment yield and grain size is essential for assessing erosion rates, designing reservoirs and dams, predicting the impacts of anthropogenic activities and climate change on river systems, and understanding the distribution of heavy and trace metal contaminants as well as micropollutants. In this study, twenty-seven bed sediment samples were collected from the main channel of the Ramganga River and its tributaries. The samples were processed using a set of stacked sieves with varying mesh sizes and a receiving pan. Each grain size fraction retained on the sieves and in the pan was collected, weighed, and recorded. To determine the hydrodynamic conditions and depositional environments, bivariate plots, a linear discriminant function (LDF), and a Passega diagram were utilized. The results show that the sediments are predominantly unimodal, with only two bimodal samples found in the midstream region. According to Folk's classification system, the sediments are categorized into four classes: coarse sand (4%), medium sand (33%), fine sand (52%), and very fine sand (11%). The upstream samples consist of the coarsest particles, are poorly sorted, and are primarily transported through rolling mechanisms. In contrast, midstream and downstream samples are finer, better sorted, and predominantly transported in suspension.

The tectonic deformation by the Himalayan orogeny resulted in the development of sedimentary basins with multiple petroleum plays, especially in the Eocene rocks. Previous studies on the Eocene rocks broadly discusses the depositional environment, diagenesis, and outcrop features. However, the present work includes both outcrop and wireline log data to elucidate microfacies, diagenetic control, and sequence stratigraphic patterns used for reservoir characterization of the Sakesar Limestone, both at surface and sub-surface level. Field features include light to medium grey, massive, nodular, fossiliferous, fractured limestone which is mainly classified into wackestone to packstone microfacies. Several diagenetic features such as cementation, neomorphism, compaction, and calcite-filled fractures are observed and they have reduced the pore network. However, secondary dissolution in the bioclastic wackestone facies and fracturing have enhanced the pore network and its connectivity. Wireline logs also show sonic porosity of 5.3%, and 3.16% effective porosity is sufficient for carbonate reservoirs. The bulk porosity may reach up to 14%. Sequence stratigraphic study show that coarsening upward and massive carbonate beds characterized by packstone faices are interpreted as highstand systems tract in the Sakesar Limestone, which suggests the prograding depositional pattern. The outcome of this work demonstrates that potential reservoir intervals in the Sakesar Limestone are mainly fractures and solution enhanced pore spaces in the wackestone microfacies which can be targeted for enhancement for the exploration and production in these carbonate rocks .

Groundwater contamination in the Mediterranean Basin is a severe problem that has a significant impact on environmental ecosystems and human health. The unconventional uranium and the potentially toxic elements (PTEs) of phosphate rocks are the principal contaminants in the phosphate mining industry in Tunisia. Phosphogypsum (PG) results from the valorization of phosphate to fertilizers and phosphoric acid. PG stocks can be used in cement production, brick manufacturing, and soil amendments in desertic land, and can be resolved by using nanomaterial adsorbents. In the flat area of the study area, the increase in radioactivity (40K) is due to abusive fertilizer use. Geochemical and radiological analyses in the northern part of Tunisia and its karst shallow aquifer indicate significant contamination levels. The northern part exhibits moderate contamination, whereas the karst shallow aquifer shows higher contamination levels, particularly with elevated nitrate concentrations. In the phosphate basin, both washing phosphate and phosphogypsum reveal high levels of radioactive elements, with the latter showing especially high concentrations of radium. The shallow aquifer in this region has moderate contamination levels, while the deep geothermal aquifer also shows noticeable contamination but to a lesser degree compared to the shallow aquifer. The shallow groundwater is characterized by a higher value of radioactivity than the groundwater due to the contamination impact from the phosphate industry and the cumulative radioactivity disintegration. Finally, the nanoparticles and the electrostatic adsorption can decrease the PTEs and radionuclides from the contaminated water in the study area. Moreover, other key issues for advancing research on groundwater contamination are proposed in this study. It is time to valorize this PG and the other mines of (Fe, Pb, and Zn) in the socioeconomic sector in Tunisia and to minimize the environmental impact of the industrial sector’s extraction on groundwater and human health in the study area.

Geochemical proxies are a reliable tool in deciphering the paleoenvironment and diagenetic alteration in carbonate rock units. The Lower Cretaceous Yamama Formation (LCYF) is an important carbonate unit of the Saudi Arabia region which has been studied in detail to evaluate the paleoenvironment and diagenetic alteration through geochemical studies. This study presents new data on petrography, stable isotopes, and trace and rare-earth elements to enhance our understanding on paleoenvironments, redox conditions, and paleosalinity during the deposition of these carbonate units. Field studies show that the formation is composed of thick-to-thin-bedded limestone. Petrographic studies show that the formation is mostly composed of mudstone, wackestone, packstone, and grainstone facies. The stable isotopic values of carbon (δ13C V-PDB = +0.58‰ to +2.23‰) and oxygen (δ18O V-PDB = −6.38‰ to −4.48‰) are directly within the range of marine signatures. CaCO3’s dominance over SiO2 and Al2O3 indicates minimal detrital contribution during the LCYF precipitation. The REE pattern suggests coeval marine signatures which include (i) a slight LREE depletion compared to HREEs (av. Nd/YbN = 0.70), (ii) negative Ce anomalies (av. Ce/Ce* = 0.5), and (iii) a positive La anomaly (av. La/La* = 1.70). Micritic limestone has low Hf (bdl to 0.4 µg/g), Sc (bdl to 2.5 µg/g), and Th (bdl to 0.8 µg/g) content, which suggests negligible detrital influence. The Ce content of different facies (Ce = 1u.80 to 12.85 µg/g) suggests that their deposition took place under oxic to dysoxic conditions. However, there is moderate variation during the deposition of MF-I, with higher Ce values as compared to MF-II, MF-III, and MF-IV, which suggests that the deposition of MF-I mostly took place in anoxic to dysoxic conditions.

This study employed particle-size analysis on twenty friable sandstone beds from two outcrops of the Biyadh Formation, which acts as a water aquifer, petroleum reservoir, and CO2 capturing reservoir. Hydrodynamic processes and depositional environments were identified using bivariate plots, Visher diagrams, Passega diagrams, and linear discriminant functions (LDF). The results reveal that the beds of Outcrop A mainly consist of medium- to well-sorted, medium-grained sandstone that is near-symmetrical and mesokurtic. However, Outcrop B comprises medium-sorted, medium-grained sandstone beds that are near-symmetrical and leptokurtic. All the beds in Outcrop A and B are unimodal. Furthermore, Visher and Passega diagrams indicate that the particles of Outcrop A were mostly transported by rolling, saltation, and suspension. In contrast, the particles of Outcrop B were transported by rolling, saltation, suspension, and graded suspension. The LDF technique shows that the depositional environments were beach, aeolian, fluvial, and shallow marine.

Water scarcity threatens agriculture, domestic, industrial, and food security in the land of Saudi Arabia. The nation produces significant quantities of municipal wastewater, which, with adequate treatment (nanotechnology), could serve as an alternative water source for irrigation, thereby reducing reliance on fossil groundwater and/or surface water. This study assessed the management of water resources for irrigation in KSA. A multi-criteria approach was applied to evaluate the water suitability for domestic and irrigation, including complying with Saudi Standards and the potential salinity (PS) indices. The application of treated wastewater (TWW) irrigation has successfully maintained groundwater sustainability in the study area, as evidenced by increased groundwater levels up to 2 min some aquifers and the equilibrium for other deep aquifers. Although TWW contributes to crop productivity and soil fertility, long-term agricultural sustainability could be enhanced by improving effluent quality, regulating irrigation practices, implementing buffer zones, and monitoring shallow groundwater. Agricultural activities in KSA mixed with return flow irrigation water to deep groundwater increase total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), nitrate (NO3), pesticides, and radionuclide element (40K and 226Ra) concentrations.In intensive agricultural areas (Tabuk, Al Jouf, Al-Qassim, Hail, Riyadh, Al Kharej, Wadi Dawaser, Jazen…), the nitrate levels exceeded 200 mg/l, 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radioactivity is of the order of 35 Bq/l, 41 Bq/l and 730 Bq/l respectively.The best methodology plan should orient to improve the management practices and the protection of the water resources and to orient to the unconventional water sources (TWW, collection of drainwater, seawater…) and thirdly move towards rainwater (liquid and vapor) harvesting and the fourth direction is logical sharing between sectors and law enforcement. Water, soil and human health protection are the principal goals of this study.

The Albian–Aptian Goru Formation represents a fluvio-deltaic reservoir in both the Central and Southern Indus Basin, Pakistan. Using high-resolution core data, this study provides comprehensive insights into the depositional environment and its role in influencing reservoir heterogeneities in the studied formation. The sedimentological investigations demonstrate five lithofacies, namely, (i) massive sandstone (Sm), (ii) horizontal to low-angle planar laminated sandstone (Sl), (iii) planar cross-laminated sandstone (Sc), (iv) heterolithic beds (Hw and Hr), and (v) massive mudstone (Mm). Facies associations reflect shallow marine depositional settings varying from deltaic in the NE to strand plain in the SW. The framework grains of the established lithofacies exhibit quartzo-feldspathic petrofabrics, which have been sourced from stable craton-continental block settings. The petrophysical data in the core depth zone show high shale content in Well-A and lower parts of Well-B. In Well-A, the crossover between the density and neutron logs is not observed, which suggests unsaturated sands, while Well-B exhibits a permeable zone as indicated by neutron-density crossover, low gamma ray values, and relatively high porosity. The petrographic analysis and scanning electron microscopy indicate high effective porosities contributed by both primary (intergranular and intercrystalline) and secondary porosity (owing to fracturing and dissolution). The upper part of Well-B shows high porosity values up to 28

The middle Jurassic Samana Suk Formation is well exposed in Himalayan foreland fold and thrust belt forming a good hydrocarbon reservoir of the Indus Basin; however, the combined sedimentological and geochemical studies are not conducted so far. An integrated approach using field, petrographic, geochemical, and isotopic studies was used to better understand the depositional and diagenetic processes within the formation. The formation is predominantly composed of thin to medium-bedded limestone with intercalation of shale. Field observations reveal sedimentary and diagenetic features such as cross bedding, sole marks, ripple marks, convolute bedding, stylolites, dissolution marks and patchy dolomitization. Microfacies associations include mudflat microfacies associations (mudstone MF-1, dolo-mudstone MF-2), lagoonal microfacies associations (siliciclastic bio-packstone MF-3, peloidal bioclastic packstone MF-4, bioclastic wackestone MF-5, and peloidal wackestone MF-6), barrier/shoal microfacies association (peloidal grainstone MF-7, ooidal–peloidal bioclastic grainstone MF-8, ooidal grainstone MF-9, and bioclastic peloidal grainstone MF-10). The above-mentioned microfacies associations suggest the deposition in the ramp settings (mudflats, lagoonal and shoal). The diagenetic features include: micritization, mechanical/chemical compaction, dissolution, neomorphism, cementation, dolomitization and fracturing. Selective replacement of grain dominated facies represents fabric retentive replacive dolomite RD-I formed at the early phase, followed by matrix replacive dolomite RD-II. Late-stage diagenetic alteration is marked by fabric-destructive dolomite RD-III. Geochemical data show a consistent decrease in salinity from the early to late diagenetic phases characterized by elevated Na and K concentration and reduced Fe and Mn concentration. Furthermore, stable isotopic data of limestone and dolomite phases show non-depleted δ13 C values ranging from + 0.26 to + 1.86‰ VPDB suggesting no external supply of carbon after the deposition of the carbonate units. The non-depleted δ18 O values ranging from − 1.96 to − 0.45‰ VPDB of dolomite phases represents seawater signatures, and hence may have formed in surface processes of marine water in mudflat settings/evaporitic conditions. Paleogeographically, Samana Suk Formation exhibits similar depositional conditions with the western coastline of the Tethys.

The present study aims to assess the tectonic activity in the South Setifian allochthonous complex, providing insights into the evolution of the landscape. A morphometric analysis of Jebel Youcef Mountain (JYM) in Eastern Algeria was conducted to assess neotectonic activity. Six quantitative parameters were analyzed: stream length-gradient index, asymmetric factor, hypsometric integral, valley floor width-to-valley height ratio, index of drainage basin shape, and index of mountain front sinuosity across the 16 river basins in the region. The geomorphic indices are combined into a single index of relative tectonic activity (IRTA), categorized into four classes: very high, high, moderate, and low. The results identified two major lineament sets. The NE-SW lineament set is the dominant structural feature, playing a key role in driving recent geological processes and deformation in the study area. In contrast, the E-W and NW-SE lineament sets exert a more localized influence, primarily affecting the Jurassic formations at Kef El Ahmar’s central peak in Jebel Youcef, though they exhibit relatively lower tectonic activity compared to the NE-SW lineament set. Based on the relative active tectonic classes, significant neotectonic activity is evident in the study area, as shown by distinctive basement fracturing. The findings contribute to understanding the structural processes in the study area. Furthermore, the study establishes a systematic framework for analyzing tectonic activity and landscape morphology evolution, enhancing our perception of the convergence between the North African Alpine zones and the Atlas range.