Murayama and Jach critically evaluate the idea that motivation is a dynamic that determines behavior and propose alternatively that it might be an emergent property that people construe through perceived regularities in experience and action. The critique has value but fails to appreciate the progress that has been made in moving beyond the idea of which the authors are critical.

The preparation of the Special Issue was supported by a grant 2013/11/B/HS6/01463 from the National Science Center awarded to Hanna Brycz. This special issue is the result of cooperation between the Society for the Study of Motivation (SSM) and Polish social psychologists at the University of Gdansk and Jagiellonian University. Cooperation between these parties dates back to the point at which the SSM was first established, in 2007. It has yielded fruitful idea exchanges, including ones that occurred during a series of international conferences concerned with human motivation. The most recent international conference had the theme “Motivation and Social Perception” and took place in Gdansk – July, 2016. Following the theme of the most recent conference, this special issue is devoted to motivation and social perception. The existing psychological literature contains many relevant approaches. Examples are approaches concerned with goal-directed behavior (Aarts & Eliot, 2012), social judgments and decision making (Krueger, 2012; Weiner, 1995), lay theories of intelligence (Dweck, 2000), self and identity (Alicke, Dunning, & Krueger, 2005), work and achievement (Locke, Latham, 1990), and goal-striving and health (Wright & Gendolla, 2012). Broad psychological theories address broad meanings of motivation and social perception (Higgins, 2012; Higgins & Kruglanski, 2000; Van Lange, Kruglanski & Higgins, 2012; Weiner, 1972). It is impossible to understand core motivational processes such as the establishment and operation of motives without understanding related social perception processes (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004; Fiske, 2013; Weiner, 2014). The articles in this special issue address multiple links between motivation and social perception, demonstrating the depth and richness of theory in both domains. In the passages below, we briefly describe these articles, noting the central focus of each. One of the fundamental questions in psychological science is how human motivation and associated emotions are influenced by attributions, including those generated by people’s perspective as actors or observers (Nisbett & Ross, 1980). Bernard Weiner addresses this question, applying his classic attribution model. Weiner’s classic model built on ideas presented in Heider’s (1958) seminal book, “The psychology of interpersonal relations” and shows every sign of standing beautifully the test of time moving forward. Marcin Bukowski, Rosa Rodríguez-Bailón, Soledad de Lemus, Guillermo Willis, Gloria Jiménez-Moya, and Russell Spears do something similar. Specifically, they address the problem of emotions generated by attributions towards powerless groups, considering the role of power asymmetries. Ideas expressed by these authors are highly relevant to the social integration of refugee youth and lead nicely to the following chapter by Jaana Juvonen. Jaana discusses successful models of social integration and reviews lessons learned about school–based interethnic relations in the USA. Goals and goal striving processes are central to human functioning (Belanger, Lafreniere, Giacomantonio, Brizi, & Kruglanski, 2016). Arie Kruglanski, Conrad Baldner, Marina Chernikova, Calogero Lo Destro, and Antonio Pierro address the essential function of goals and describe their new perspective on the attitude–behavior relation. A key to understanding goal striving is understanding two self-regulatory focuses, one oriented toward advancement and accomplishment and the other oriented toward safety and responsibility (Higgins, 2012). Tory Higgins elaborates in context of his promotion versus prevention regulatory focus theory and considers different applications. Monischa Amlinger-Chatterjee and Nicola Baumann consider self-regulation in a different light. They discuss individual differences in the ability to moderate emotions taking the state versus action orientation championed by Kuhl (1981). The Authors elaborate on populations that Hanna Brycz* Rex Wright**

We describe an emerging analysis of fatigue influence on behavioral restraint and consider its potential significance for two central concerns of contemporary restraint investigators: (1) adverse health effects of restraint, and (2) fatigue influence on self-control. Regarding health, the analysis provides a conceptual framework for anticipating restraint intensity and therefore possible risk. It also draws attention to a pathological pathway through which restraint could generate some adverse health outcomes. Regarding self-control, the analysis conveys a perspective that could markedly improve our prediction of relevant outcomes and has focused significance for crises that have been identified in relation to the influential limited resource analysis of self-control developed by Baumeister and colleagues. Crisis concerns have led some to conclude that the limited resource analysis should be discarded. The present behavioral restraint analysis goes against this grain, suggesting that the limited resource analysis might wisely be retained and afforded the chance to mature – among other things, incorporating elaborated effort components.

Various papers have detailed an analysis of behavioral restraint that provides suggestions regarding fatigue influence on inhibitory control. A well-known limited resource model by Baumeister suggests that fatigue should directly impair it. By contrast, the behavioral restraint analysis suggests-first-that fatigue might affect control indirectly by impacting the intensity of restraint. Second, fatigue should impair control consistently only when it leads people to withhold restraint effort. We evaluated these suggestions in an experiment that presented participants a task designed to induce low- or high- mental fatigue and then challenged them to maintain a neutral facial expression while watching a more- or less emotionally evocative film clip. As expected, cardiovascular assessments during the facial restraint period revealed interactional response patterns indicative of opposing fatigue influence on restraint intensity under low- as compared to high-evocativeness conditions. Also as expected, fatigue combined with evocativeness to produce a three versus one pattern of inhibitory control operationalized in terms of the duration of non-neutral facial displays. Control failure increased with evocativeness only when fatigue was high and increased with fatigue only when evocativeness was high. Findings support the restraint analysis suggestions, extend results from previous research, and bear out the promise of the restraint analysis for advancing understanding of inhibitory control.

We offer thoughts on Shadmehr and Ahmed's foundational assumption that behavioral intensity (vigor) is proportional to the perceived value of outcomes driving behavior (incentives). The assumption is reasonable considering classical motivational thought and scholarship in related literatures but called into question by an influential contemporary theory of motivation by Brehm. Brehm's theory suggests that the assumption is warranted in some, but not all, performance circumstances. Furthermore, proportionality between vigor and value might be generated through a deliberative goal-setting process rather than through intrinsic neural linkages.

Memorializes Robert A. Wicklund (1941-2020). Wicklund was born in Seattle, WA, December 1, 1941. At the time of his death on December 12, 2020, he maintained residences in Bainbridge Island, WA, and Bielefeld, Germany. Bob earned his undergraduate degree at the University of Washington and his doctorate at Duke University in 1968. He held primary faculty positions at the University of Texas at Austin, Universität Bielefeld, and the Università di Trieste, and secondary appointments at numerous institutions, including the Ruhr-Universität Bochum, University of Bergen, Universität Mannheim, and Università di Palermo. Bob was a scholar's scholar who dedicated his entire life to understanding psychological phenomena, and to sharing his ideas with others. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

BACKGROUND Two experiments were designed to investigate the motivational role of the metacognitive self (MCS, meaning self-awareness of biases) and kind of feedback (success vs. failure vs. control group) in willingness to learn. We predict that the condition of failure enhances motivation to learn. Predictions relate to the first experiment and social incentives, not to spatial ones. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE Three hundred ninety-eight participants were individually (in front of a computer with E-Prime) and randomly assigned to experiment 1 of a social task or experiment 2 of a spatial task. Each experiment included three groups: success, failure, and control. The independent variables were metacognitive self (MCS) and type of feedback (success vs. failure vs. control). The dependent variable was the willingness to learn. Logistic regression was applied to investigate the hypothesis that the higher the level of MCS is, the more likely it is that the participants will try to learn. RESULTS As predicted, MCS was positively related to searching for self-diagnostic information in the first experiment. Furthermore, according to expectations, the experiment with a social task showed the main effects of both MCS and type of feedback. The spatial experiment did not reveal significant effects. CONCLUSIONS MCS is positively related to motivation to search for self diagnostic information, and students are more willing to learn in the face of failure. According to expectations, the experiment with a social task substantiated the motivational role of MCS and the role of negative feedback in willingness to learn.

We presented participants with a bar-pressing challenge relevant to their identity after having exposed them to a prime that made their mortality more or less salient. For some participants, difficulty was low; for others, it was high; for the rest, it was unfixed. As expected, heart pre-ejection period responses-reflecting heart contraction force-were (a) stronger under high-salience conditions when difficulty was high and unfixed, but (b) low regardless of salience when difficulty was low. Findings bear out conceptually and extend results from a previous experiment. In doing so, they add substantively to a new line of support for terror management theory and document the predictive utility of a proposed blended analysis of associated effort processes. The blended analysis speaks to the way in which motives to manage existential terror should convert into active goal striving and to the impact that existential threat might have on aspects of autonomic arousal.

Studies have documented the predictive utility of an integrative analysis of ability influence on effort and cardiovascular response. An assumption is that influence is driven by perception. We evaluated this altering ability perception through negative (nocebo) or positive (placebo) suggestion. Participants ingested a pill having been told it would reduce or enhance cognitive clarity. They then were presented a math task with the chance to earn an incentive if they met a low- or high performance standard. Analyses indicated higher reports of clarity during work among participants provided positive clarity instructions and a crossover clarity instruction x performance standard interaction for heart rate response. Responses were stronger for positive instruction participants when the standard was high, but stronger for negative instruction participants when it was low. Findings provide distinctive support for the assumption and suggest a fresh strategy for evaluating the impact of nocebo/placebo and other interventions on subjective experience.

We presented morning chronotype ("Lark") university undergraduate volunteers a more or less difficult Sternberg-type recognition memory task either in the morning (8-11 am) or in the evening (5-8 pm) with instructions that they could win a prize if they were 85% successful. We established morning chronotype using the Composite Scale for Morningness (Smith et al., 1989), employing a tertile split on a pool of scale scores that ranged from 13 (extreme eveningness) to 55 (extreme morningness). Participants had scores above 37, with most participants identifying as White/Caucasian, Hispanic/Latino, or Black/African-American. Among women (final sample n = 81), systolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure responses assessed during work formed a crossover pattern, being positively correspondent to difficulty in the morning but negatively correspondent to difficulty in the evening. Heart rate and heart pre-ejection period responses ran parallel in the morning but not the evening. Among men (final sample n = 41), cardiovascular responses differed neither with difficulty nor with time. Findings for women support the extension of a recent analysis of fatigue influence on effort and associated cardiovascular responses to the phenomenon of circadian mismatch. Findings for men do not support the extension but should be interpreted guardedly in light of prohibitively low cell ns and unexpected findings on key subjective measures.

What determines effort intensity in instrumental behavior? According to motivation intensity theory, effort should be proportional to experienced task difficulty as long as success is possible and justified and low when success is impossible or excessively difficult, given the available benefit. When task difficulty is unspecified or unknown, effort should be proportional to the importance of success. This chapter reports an extensive program of research that has operationalized effort intensity as cardiovascular reactivity during task performance and used multiple manipulations of variables influencing subjective task difficulty (e.g., performance standards, instrumentality, ability, fatigue, mood, depressive symptoms, implicit affect, implicit and biological aging) and the amount of justified effort (e.g., material incentive, instrumentality, needs, personal and social evaluation, mortality salience). In the second edition of this handbook, this chapter focuses on recent empirical evidence for the principles of motivation intensity theory and discusses challenges for other theoretical accounts.

Presents an obituary for Sharon Stephens Brehm (1945-2018). Brehm was president of the American Psychological Association in 2007. Her presidential address was titled "Looking Ahead: The Future of Psychology and APA" (see the July-August 2008 issue of American Psychologist, Vol. 63, pp. 337-344). In her presidential term, she worked to increase diversity, interdisciplinarity, and internationalization in psychology. Major initiatives included task forces on integrative health care, math and science education, and institutional review boards. Sharon was a writer of the first order. She published numerous books, chapters, and articles, including wellreceived social psychology textbooks prepared with Saul Kassin and Steven Fein. One book of special note was her foundational The Application of Social Psychology to Clinical Practice (1976), which played a key role in inspiring interest in the social-clinical interface. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).