ABSTRACT:The last 10 years have seen an increase in union representation for residents and fellows across the United States. It is estimated that 15% of residents and fellows are represented by unions. With increasing numbers of U.S. residents and fellows in graduate medical education (GME) programs being represented by unions, the authors contend that it is worthwhile to consider the benefits and potential drawbacks of resident unions and how GME and health system leaders can best work to ensure that the educational needs of residents continue to be emphasized in an era of resident unionization. Union bargaining can be a method to secure salary increases and other benefits for residents. Unionization can also provide a mechanism for more rapidly addressing worker protection issues and allows residents to advocate on behalf of patients. Residents participating as union leaders may develop important leadership and negotiation skills as well as gain beneficial knowledge about health system structure, financing, and priorities. However, with all the possible benefits that may come with resident unionization, there are also potential pitfalls. The collective bargaining process may create an adversarial relationship between program and institution leaders and trainees. Additionally, while residents are considered employees and able to collectively bargain, the National Labor Relations Board has also acknowledged that residents are "students learning their chosen medical craft." Program and institution leaders have an obligation to prioritize resident education and adhere to accreditation requirements even when these requirements conflict with union demands. Furthermore, because of the obligation to protect the public, program leaders should maintain control of resident academic due process issues. Program and institutional leaders must continue to prioritize resident education. Furthermore, GME leaders have a joint responsibility to create clinical learning environments that are conducive to quality patient care and promote resident learning and well-being.

Communication between different fields in universities is often hindered by the “multi-tower” problem: each focuses on its own questions and issues and tends to ignore work in other, even closely related ones. This occurs in part, because each field has its own terminology theories, journals, and conferences and because university policies claiming ownership of researchers’ findings restrict them from sharing this knowledge with others. Entrepreneurship, by welcoming input from many different sources—economics, sociology, strategic management, and psychology—avoids the “multi-tower” problem; this is one of its important strengths. In his own work, the author has sought to broaden the range of entrepreneurship research by “importing” findings and theory from psychology that are relevant to understanding entrepreneurs, the personal factors that affect their success, and important aspects of the entrepreneurial process overall. Entrepreneurship is open to input from several different fields—economics, strategic management, and psychology. This is a strength that facilitates its sophistication and progress. In his research, the author has sought to “import” knowledge, findings, and theory from psychology to entrepreneurship research and theory. This helped expand the scope of entrepreneurship and contributed to the understanding of entrepreneurs and several aspects of the entrepreneurial process. The research findings have implications for future research and education of potential entrepreneurs.

In this special issue, we aim to explore the topic of rationality and its manifestations in entrepreneurship. The six articles in this special issue cover a range of questions about rationality – what it is, where it comes from, how it influences decision-making as well as understanding contextual factors that influence it. Reflecting our call for submissions as well as the accepted articles included in this special issue, we recognize, but also depart from, rationality's origins in economics to provide a range of perspectives on rationality in the entrepreneurship process. We also discuss common themes and future research directions for the field.

The words possibility and opportunity are often viewed as synonyms. In the field of entrepreneurship, though, they have different meanings. Possibilities refer to what might be in the future but does not now exist. Opportunities refer to possibilities that can be developed into something real—new products, services, processes. Entrepreneurs evaluate opportunities in terms of their feasibility, potential for development, and whether people will want and use them if available; they then attempt to choose the ones highest on these dimensions. Several factors play a role in entrepreneurs’ success in identifying potentially valuable opportunities, including the findings of relevant research, entrepreneurs’ active search for opportunities, recognition of patterns among apparently unrelated factors, and in some instances, chance. When successful in creating something new and better than what currently exists, entrepreneurs can change human life and—sometimes—the world around us.

Recognition of potentially valuable business opportunities is often the start of entrepreneurship. The present research focused on entrepreneurial alertness, which has been found to play a role in this process. Previous research has highlighted the effects of alertness; we seek to extend this research regarding alertness by investigating its antecedents. Drawing upon psychological capital literature, we focus on two potential contributors to alertness: self-efficacy and optimism. We also seek to clarify the relationship between alertness and firm outcomes. Data collected from CEOs of public firms in China were first used to validate the alertness scale, and data collected with entrepreneurs of private small and medium-sized enterprises in Taiwan were used to test our theoretical model. Results indicated that both entrepreneurs' self-efficacy and optimism are positively related to alertness. Findings also clarify the effects of alertness by indicating that it is positively related to firm innovation which, in turn, is positively related to financial performance.

Traditionally, funds provided by research grants have made a substantial contribution to the support and training of graduate students. The overhead (or indirect costs) on research grants is an important source of funds for many universities. Finally, research grants are good for researchers, as well as their departments or universities. Research grants are viewed as an official "stamp of approval" from one's colleagues-a concrete indication that the investigator's research is perceived as valuable and important by the research community. Grant proposals are truly labors of love. Much hard work, creativity, and concern go into their preparation. It is often said that there is a "right" and a "wrong" way to do just about everything. People often have many different reasons for doing the things they do. To conclude: principal investigators should not view the receipt of a research grant as the end of the process.

Research in the space broadly defined as the "psychology of entrepreneurship" has come quite a long way in the past 10 years since the first volume of this book was published. While many topics remain relevant (competencies, cognition, action-orientation, leadership, training, and innovation), the conversation has also shifted to include new topics such as emotions/affect, psychological disorders, biology, identity, well-being, and teams. In this chapter, we first comment on new areas of research that have arisen in the last ten years and the course they may take going forward, before exploring new areas that might inspire research on the psychology of entrepreneurship well into the future.

Entrepreneurs are widely known for their generosity—voluntarily helping others through financial donations, mentoring, and various forms of community involvement. Such contributions are of great social and economic importance, yet little is known about the reasons that entrepreneurs engage in these actions and what factors may influence the occurrence and magnitude of such behavior. To help fill this gap, this chapter draws upon the theory of planned behavior to develop a model that considers both “why” and “when” entrepreneurs are likely to engage in prosocial behavior. Overall, this work extends the study of entrepreneurs’ efforts to generate value in ways that go beyond that which is directly connected to their activities as founders and leaders of their firms. Several avenues for future research on entrepreneurs’ prosocial behavior are suggested.

Why are some persons more likely than others to recognize potentially valuable opportunities? Many factors play a role, but one–alertness–emphasizes the importance of skills and abilities that prepare individuals to recognize opportunities overlooked by others. The higher individuals are in alertness, the more likely they are to discover opportunities. Research findings indicate that alertness consists of three components: active search for information, association and connection of this information, and evaluation of opportunities that emerge from this process. The present research extends current theory concerning alertness by investigating two questions. First, do the three components of alertness operate in a sequential manner such that active search and association suggest opportunities that are then evaluated in terms of their potential to create value? Second, is alertness related to two aspects of firm performance–innovativeness and financial results? To obtain data on these questions, we conducted studies in the U.S., Taiwan, and Ghana. Findings indicate that active search and information association are indirectly related to firm performance, through the mediating effects of opportunity recognition and evaluation of recognized opportunities. These findings extend existing theory concerning the role of alertness in opportunity recognition and, more generally, current knowledge of important components of the process of opportunity recognition.

Problem Quality improvement (QI) and patient safety (PS) are cornerstones of health care delivery. Accreditation organizations increasingly require that learners engage in QIPS. For many faculty, these are new domains. Additional faculty development is needed for them to teach and mentor trainees. Existing programs, such as the Association of American Medical Colleges Teaching for Quality (Te4Q) program, target individual faculty and thus accommodate only limited participants at a time, which is problematic for institutions that need to train many faculty to support their learners. Approach The authors invited diverse stakeholders from across the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) School of Medicine and related health systems to participate in a team-based adaptation of the Te4Q program. The teams completed 5 projects based on previously identified priority areas to increase local capacity for QIPS teaching: (1) online modules for faculty new to QIPS, (2) a tool kit for graduate medical education programs, (3) a module for medical school clerkship directors, (4) guidelines for faculty to integrate early learners into QI projects, and (5) a “Teach-for-UCSF” certificate program in teaching QIPS. Outcomes Thirty-five faculty members participated in the initial Te4Q workshop in January 2015, and by fall 2016, all projects were implemented. These projects led to additional faculty development initiatives and a rapidly expanding number of faculty across campus with expertise in teaching QIPS. Next Steps Further collaborations between faculty focused on QIPS in care delivery and those focused on QIPS education to promote QIPS teaching have resulted from these initial projects.

Despite increasing evidence that entrepreneurs deal with, and are heavily influenced by, a variety of stressors related to running their ventures, there is significant room for methodological and theoretical improvement. This panel symposium welcomes top-tier scholars in the domains of entrepreneurial and organizational stress to address three questions: (1) In what ways might the entrepreneurship domain better tie itself to theory in the broader organizational literature?; (2) What methodological tools and techniques will aid us in adding clarity to stress processes in entrepreneurship?; and (3) How can we best move from an individual to a multilevel perspective on entrepreneurial stress that accounts for venture team and family dynamics? We hope to spur a discussion that will draw future researchers to better integration with theory, more advanced methods, and consequentially, a deeper understanding of entrepreneurial stress. Furthermore, the dialogue will be recorded to provide insight for others who cannot attend this informative session.

Entrepreneurs often need external resources to found their new ventures. These can be obtained from many sources, but government sponsored programs are an important and often desirable one because they do not require repayment of the funds provided. Resources from such programs should, in principle, be equally available to all entrepreneurs, but in fact, some entrepreneurs—ones often described as underdogs – have restricted access to them. This disadvantage stems, in part, from personal factors they cannot readily change (e.g., gender, age, race, ethnicity, current occupation, family background, experience). The negative effects of being an underdog are especially harmful to entrepreneurs in the context of poor economic conditions, when competition for available resources is intense. In order to overcome such adversity, underdog entrepreneurs offer bribes to persons who control these resources. We hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship between the perception by entrepreneurs that local economic conditions are poor and their use of bribes, and that this relationship would be stronger for “underdog” entrepreneurs than for other entrepreneurs. We also hypothesized that the use of bribes by entrepreneurs and their perception that these bribes will be effective would interact to influence entrepreneurs' decisions to close their new venture. Specifically, bribes would influence such decisions only when they were viewed as effective. Results offered support for these hypotheses, thus providing new insights into why underdog entrepreneurs use bribes to overcome the adversity they face.

Previous studies suggest that entrepreneurs play a key role in the success of their ventures. But relatively little is currently known about how they produce such effects. The present research provides data suggesting that two modes of entrepeneurs' self-regulationlocomotion and assessmentenhance a firm's success through their effects on the components of alertness. This mediational model was tested and supported with data from 120 entrepreneurs. Locomotion was positively related to the scanning and search component, while assessment was positively related to the association and evaluation components. These findings are discussed in terms of the role of founders' self-regulation in the performance of their companies.

Chapter 6 Tools Entrepreneurs Need for Converting Dreams To Reality—And Achieving Success Robert A. Baron, Robert A. Baron Oklahoma State UniversitySearch for more papers by this author Robert A. Baron, Robert A. Baron Oklahoma State UniversitySearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Gorkan Ahmetoglu, Gorkan Ahmetoglu University College London, London, UKSearch for more papers by this authorTomas Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic University College London, London, UKSearch for more papers by this authorBailey Klinger, Bailey Klinger EFL Global & Harvard University, Cambridge, USASearch for more papers by this authorTessa Karcisky, Tessa Karcisky University of Cologne, Cologne, GermanySearch for more papers by this author First published: 17 July 2017 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118970812.ch6 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Summary This chapter presents a list of Key ingredients (tools) for entrepreneurial success. Motivation is an important tool for entrepreneurs in their quest for success involves the specific motives that bring them to entrepreneurship. The chapter provides a widely accepted view of the nature of creativity—and its role in ideas for something new. Since such ideas lie at the heart of entrepreneurship, some degree of creativity is another tool that can contribute to entrepreneurs' success. While creativity and effective opportunity recognition are important cognitive tools for entrepreneurs, another is the ability to resist what might be termed “cognitive traps”. Hubristic pride is an extreme form of the self-serving bias, and avoiding it is another important tool that can contribute to entrepreneurs' success. Overall, then, passion may be a valuable addition to the tools entrepreneurs need for success. Social capital provides entrepreneurs with increased access to both tangible and intangible resources. The Wiley Handbook of Entrepreneurship RelatedInformation

While creating and running new ventures, entrepreneurs are exposed to conditions known to generate high levels of stress (e.g., rapid change, unpredictable environments, work overload, personal responsibility for others). Thus, it has been assumed that they often experience intense stress. A markedly different possibility, however, is suggested by Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) theory. This perspective suggests that persons who are attracted by, selected into, and persist in entrepreneurship may be relatively high in the capacity to tolerate or effectively manage stress. In contrast, persons who are relatively low in this capacity tend to exit from entrepreneurship either voluntarily or involuntarily. As a result, founding entrepreneurs as a group are predicted to experience low rather than high levels of stress while running new ventures. Results supported this reasoning: Founding entrepreneurs reported lower levels of stress when compared to participants in a large national survey of perceived stress. Additional findings indicate that entrepreneurs' relatively low levels of stress derive, at least in part, from high levels of psychological capital (a combination of self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience). Psychological capital was negatively related to stress, and stress, in turn, was negatively related to entrepreneurs' subjective well-being. Furthermore, and also consistent with ASA theory, the stress-reducing effects of psychological capital were stronger for older than younger entrepreneurs.

Academic and popular discussions of social entrepreneurship often point to the importance of social value creation in contributing to a social venture's success. Implied in these discussions is the assumption that the more pressing the social problem addressed by the mission or the greater the social value generated, the more successful and attractive the venture will be. The present theoretical framework uses social cognition theory to examine the link between dimensions of the social mission and the venture's appeal to resource providers, and suggests that the magnitude of social value created is only one of a broader set of mission characteristics that influence social venture outcomes, such as resource acquisition from potential resource providers. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.