Recognition of farmers’ perspectives on soil attributes informed by their knowledge, values, and experiences is vital for understanding their fertilizer and crop management decisions. However, establishing mutual understanding between farmers and scientists has historically been challenging. This study compares smallholder farmers’ knowledge of soil attributes with assessments from agricultural science disciplines (integrating agronomy, soil science, and agricultural economics) to bridge this gap. An interdisciplinary framework was applied to develop a collaborative understanding of how rice farmers in Central Myanmar identify their soil attributes. These farmer assessments were then compared directly with scientific profile descriptions derived from soil mapping conducted via a reconnaissance survey. Farmers’ soil attribute rankings showed a high correlation, aligning very closely (77%) with the rankings of scientists. Farmers’ positive soil suitability assessments served as strong predictors of crop yield. Farmers actively adapted their nitrogen fertilizer management based on their perceived soil attributes. Furthermore, a positive relationship was observed between nitrogen use efficiency and the farmers’ own soil attribute rankings. These findings demonstrate that a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach, specifically through joint discussions of soil attributes between farmers and researchers can build common, transferable knowledge. This co-creation offers a powerful pathway for scaling agricultural innovation across wider landscapes. Although further research is required across multiple seasons and regions, formalising these local knowledge systems presents a promising, scalable, and low cost diagnostic pathway for extension programmes and sustainable agriculture initiatives in resource limited settings.

CONTEXT: The ancient irrigation systems in Sri Lanka, known as village tank cascade systems, were developed to ensure an adequate and sustainable supply of good quality water to communities. However, there is growing concern about health and environmental issues related to the degradation of water quality caused by excessive nitrogen (N) levels from the overuse of chemical fertilizer. Subsidies for chemical fertilizer have encouraged fertilizer use for rice production in Sri Lanka. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to evaluate the use of N fertilizers for rice production in the Thirappane cascaded tank system and its impact on nitrate water quality. An optimal rate of N use was determined based on private (farm-level) decisions on fertilizer use. However, the private optimal fertilizer rate is not adequate for overall social welfare due to market failures such as incomplete information and the lack of a market to account for the negative impact of fertilizer use on tank water quality. The hypothesis is that the social optimal fertilizer rate is lower than the private optimal rate due to this discrepancy. The study aims to identify the sources of inefficiency in the sub-optimal use of fertilizers from a social perspective. METHOD: We developed an integrated crop, hydro-nutrient and economic model to analyze fertilizer decisions in the rice production process. The method involved conducting a marginal economic analysis based on simulated yield responses to N fertilizer and prices for inputs and outputs. The analysis was performed for three soil types across the Maha (rainy) and Yala (dry) seasons and for three different weather scenarios within each season. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: When the negative impact of nitrate contamination on water quality is taken into account, the optimal N fertilizer rate from a social perspective is always lower than the optimal rate determined solely by private economic considerations. These optimal rates varied based on factors such as soil type, season, weather conditions during the growing season, and fertilizer prices. At unregulated, higher, fertilizer prices, the crop yields achieved at the social optimum were only slightly lower than those achieved under the private economic optimum. However, under regulated, lower, fertilizer prices, achieving the social optimum would require a larger reduction in N fertilizer use and result in a greater decrease in crop yields. SIGNIFICANCE: A systematic analysis that takes into account the social costs can serve as a guide for creating effective policies aimed at enhancing fertilizer decision making.

As farming machinery size and weight increases, soil compaction continues to threaten mechanized agriculture. Controlled Traffic Farming (CTF) minimizes soil compaction in the crop zone by restricting traffic to permanent tracks. The adoption of CTF in Europe is low. This study enhances the understanding of farmers' needs and perceptions concerning the application of CTF by analyzing survey data from 103 farmers sampled from 8 European countries. The study adopted a descriptive approach to data analysis. Awareness about traffic-induced soil compaction is high among surveyed farmers and there are positive perceptions about the potential of CTF. The major factors limiting adoption of CTF appear to be: lack of compatibility in machinery and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) by different manufacturers; expense (equipment purchase, Real-time Kinematic (RTK) signal, machinery modification); lack of demonstrated benefits under local conditions; incomplete knowledge of research findings and decision support tools; and a perception that CTF is not for small farms. The following interventions are suggested for future development and use of CTF: a shift towards lighter, simpler, adaptable, and energy effective machinery; adapted market models for cost-effective provision of basic services; demonstration of costs and benefits under local conditions in tandem with demand-driven decision support tools as well as standardization of equipment and positioning systems.

In rice (Oryza Sativa) production, appropriate nitrogen (N) management needs to consider the relationship between the rate of N fertiliser application, time of application and crop yield for different soil types.N demand is a crop-specific factor, while N supply is related to soil characteristics and crop management practices such as N fertilisation.Balancing N supply against demand makes N use more efficient by avoiding N losses from the system, which impacts farming profit and the environment.A coupled, biological and economic modelling approach was adopted to identify the economic optimum rate of N (EORN) for rice cultivation in three soil types in Sri Lanka (Figure 1).The three soil types are Low Humic Gley (LHG) poorly drained soil, Reddish Brown Earth (RBE) well imperfectly and well-drained soil.The APSIM-Oryza model was parameterised for the conditions of the study area.Model validation confirmed that there was good agreement between actual and simulated rice yield.The validated APSIM-Oryza model was used to evaluate the rates of N application between 0 and 300 kg N/ha/season for the last 20 years of weather.Rice yield response to N varied between soils, and yield variability over the years was also observed due to weather.The highest potential yield at the median and lowest yield variability across years was observed in LHG poorly drained soil which is highly suitable for rice cultivation.RBE well-drained soil showed poor response for applied N with lowest yield potential while RBE imperfectly drained soil varied between responses of other soil types.

Decision Support Tools (DSTs) in agriculture have been widely developed but have not been well accepted by smallholder farmers. One reason for the limited use is that the tools do not account for the complexity of heterogeneous smallholder farming systems. Identifying farm typologies has facilitated technology transfer to target groups of farmers. Accounting for heterogeneity in farm systems can help in designing and deploying DSTs to address farmer needs. Typology analysis was applied to a 600-household survey dataset to identify different farm system types. Qualitative participatory research was used to assess the potential deployment of DSTs for fertilizer management. Six types of farm systems were identified with distinct characteristics in the study area of central Myanmar. Participatory research through focus group discussions with 34 participants from the six different farm types validated the farm typologies and found that farmers from one type considered that DSTs could be useful in gaining more information and knowledge. An important finding was that DSTs providing prescriptive advice were inconsistent with what many farmers want. Farmers indicated that discussion groups are a preferred learning-based approach rather than a prescriptive tool. Farmers preferred video clips and infographics integrated into existing familiar digital platforms. This study identifies heterogeneity within a large farm sample and develops a deeper understanding of fertilizer decisions as well as knowledge and intentions related to the use of DSTs or apps via follow-up focus group discussions. Incorporating a participatory research framework with typology identification can have a beneficial role in direct interactions with smallholders that may increase their acceptability of DSTs. This study has generated valuable information about farmer types and serves as a starting point for developing a framework for discussion support systems that may better relate to the needs of farmers.

Participation in off-farm employment is a strategy adopted by farmers in many developing countries to increase and stabilize their incomes. However, empirical evidence on its effects on management of natural resources is context specific. This study examines the pattern on labor use with special emphasis on determinants and potential effects of participation in off-farm employment by the villagers reside in Thirappane tank cascade system in Sri Lanka. Data gathered from a primary survey conducted among 134 households were used for analysis. The results of probit models revealed that the farmers who possess agricultural assets have a higher probability of joining employment in other-farms and those who are educated and own large farms participate in non-farm sector employment. Community management of the village tank cascade systems will be challenging owing to the increased interest in off-farm activities by the able.

Mobile phone applications (apps) designed to assist smallholder farmers improve decision-making have been revolutionizing the agriculture sector. These apps offer solutions to farmer information needs by providing weather information, crop market trends, pest and disease damage identification, and advice on pesticide and fertilizer use. They also facilitate interaction with fellow farmers, extension workers and other stakeholders in the value chain who are interested in information exchange. Much previous research has investigated the contribution of mobile apps to agricultural production. This study explored the agricultural mobile apps available in Myanmar, analyzed factors affecting their use and assessed the potential for farm-based decision support. Our findings indicate that when introducing mobile-based tools, focus should be given to younger, more educated farmers growing more specialized crops. The main constraints to adopt agricultural apps are lack of access to smartphone and/or internet (63%) and lack of digital knowledge (20%). However, smallholder farmers in Myanmar were optimistic and positive toward agricultural apps for effective utilization. We also found that majority of the surveyed farmers were familiar with information received through Facebook groups. Incorporating useful information and functions from an agricultural mobile app to a Facebook Page could have a more useful and sustainable impact.

Agriculture in Myanmar has substantial development potential given the abundance of land, water, and labor resources in the country. Despite this, agricultural productivity in Myanmar is low and farm incomes are amongst the lowest in Asia. The underperformance of crops and low yield is widely reported to be due to low fertilizer use by smallholders. This study investigated the perceptions of smallholders about fertilizer use for cereal crops by considering their motives and decision making. We reported results of a 600 smallholders' survey and tested whether the reportedly low fertilizer use by smallholders is generally true for central Myanmar. We compared the fertilizer application timing against recommended "good management practices". Among the surveyed rice farmers, the average fertilizer applied was much higher than previously reported national average fertilizer rates while the majority of the surveyed maize farmers were found to be applying less than the national recommended rates. With respect to timing, nearly half of the surveyed smallholders were not applying nitrogen at the estimated panicle initiation stage, which is often crucial to increase yield, and the majority (82%) of smallholders were applying phosphorus throughout the growth stages, when earlier applications are desirable. Smallholders may be able to reduce the cost of labor by reducing the number of P applications and avoiding late applications.

Farm businesses producing fruit for the fresh fruit market require significant amounts of labour, especially for harvesting. In other agricultural industries, like cropping, the reliance on labour has reduced because machines have replaced labour. At the moment, machines do not replace labour for horticultural businesses supplying the fresh fruit market, consequently the labour cost is significant. However, machines, like a mobile platform, may improve the efficiency of labour or reduce the need for particular skills. Mobile platforms are not new and have been a consideration for fruit growers since the 1970s, but rising costs of labour has increased interest in investing in them. Research in the United States, Europe and South Africa into the benefits of mobile platforms has found, in some cases, that using a platform can improve productivity and occupational health and safety, but the findings are inconclusive. The aim of this investigation was to identify the labour needs for Australian growers supplying apples to the fresh fruit market and to investigate and form a view about the role a mobile platform has against other tools that can be used by growers to assist labour. This study has found that the `best' combination of equipment, machinery and labour to use to assist in the main production tasks of horticultural businesses depends on the many and varied characteristics of the business, the segment of the market the farmer sells into, the operator and the skills and cost of labour.

Off-grid groundwater cotton irrigators using traditional technologies have had few options to reduce water extraction costs. New options of blending of Alternating Current and Direct Current through an allin-one soft start converter/controller offer opportunities to lower costs, diversify fuel sources and continuous off-grid power in remote locations. Diesel energy can be replaced by renewable fuel sources through installing an electric submersible pump powered by solar photovoltaic in combination with a diesel generator. An investment analysis using a discounted cashflow over 25 years showed a 23% internal rate of return and payback over 5 years. Benefits of installing a renewable fuel source included lower greenhouse gas emissions per bale of cotton produced and less labour to monitor and service traditional diesel irrigation plant. Emissions calculations reveal a reduction of 26%, or 35 kg CO(2)e per cotton lint bale, and an abatement of 2665 t/CO(2)e for the life of the project. The cost of emissions abatement under the Renewable Energy Target to displace almost one million litres of diesel was found to be $31 t CO(2)e. Crown Copyright (C) 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Agriculture in low latitude countries such as Sri Lanka is already operating at the maximum temperature limits for crop growth and faces increased production risk from expected climate change. Sri Lanka is a developing country with limited economic and technological capacity to develop adaptation strategies; hence more vulnerable to climate change than developed countries. Coconut (Cocos nucifera L) is a rain fed perennial crop important in Sri Lankan culture, food consumption and the economy. It is the second most important food in the Sri Lankan diet after rice. Several studies have examined the impact of climate change on Sri Lankan agriculture, but none were conducted to simulate the impact of future climate change and future adaptation strategies on coconut production, or to calculate the economic welfare effects for different stakeholders in the coconut value chain. In this paper we report the development of an economic model of the coconut value chain that allows prediction of welfare impacts, and a quantitative representation of coconut yield that allows prediction of the impact of changing climatic conditions. The average outcome of 16 climate models was used to generate future climatic conditions, with two future climatic scenarios for 2020, 2030 and 2050 considered for three production regions. The most important yield estimate was a yield decline of more than 10 percent in the wet climatic zone due to the expected increase of maximum temperature. Without extra adaptation measures this is predicted to result in a loss to the industry of 4,795 Rs. Million annually by 2020, which is nearly 4.7 percent of the total value of the industry at equilibrium prices and quantities. The negative impact of climate change has the potential to be reduced with the implementation of additional adaptation practices. However, the cost effectiveness of these practices needs to be considered. Wider adoption of fertilizer application at specific times and moisture conservation practices are estimated to be economically beneficial.

The Sri Lankan coconut industry is facing intense competition due to increasing demand from local consumption and export processing while fresh nut production is stagnating. The situation is aggravated during weather extremes especially with prolonged droughts. The recent prolonged drought of nearly two years was the cause for temporary closure of processing industries and soaring nut prices. It may take more than a year to re-establish normal yield even with the onset of rainfall in October. Therefore, importation of coconuts as a strategy was explored in this study. An Equilibrium Displacement Model (EDM) was used to quantify the possible economic impact and its distribution among industry stakeholders. The results indicated that allowing imports is economically viable for the processing industries to recover their losses. Under the simulated scenarios where input substitution is a policy condition to be zero, reducing the costs of processing of desiccated coconut through fresh nut importation reduces the losses to the processors and exporters from 15.5 LKR million per year to about 5.5 LKR million per year. Consumers of desiccated coconut exports are also better off by around 45 LKR million under the above scenario of a price reduction of fresh nuts from 43 LKR to 32 LKR. However, still there are concerns for the existence of markets produced from foreign material and export substitution. Moreover, the compliance with the quarantine regulations especially for the risk of pest and disease outbreaks remains unresolved. Therefore, dehusked-coconut importation is still not an option for a severe coconut shortage while other semi-processed products may remain potential alternatives.

This research investigated yam based production enterprise in Nigeria to identify the ideal farming system for yam. Data were extracted from 360 respondents in selected major yam-producing States in Nigeria. Data were analysed by the use of descriptive statistics and economic analysis. The result of this investigation reveals that yam production is profitable but it requires a large capital outlay. Yam production was more profitable that other comparable crops. There are infinite cropping systems for yam in Nigeria. All the dominant cropping systems for yam are profitable. Yam/maize intercropping system is the most profitable crop system for yam in Nigeria. The key recommendations from this research are increased investment in yam production; adoption of Yam/Maize intercropping system; and the development of an appropriate yam production technique that will reduce the cost of yam and make its production more profitable.

There is global food insecurity which could be attributed to poor performance of the agricultural sector in the developing countries. In a bid to ensure food security, improved technologies have been developed and disseminated to farmers. These include Yam Minisett Technology. In spite of this, there is food insecurity and poverty intensification in the country. This raises the questions whether or not farmers are adopting these technologies and the efficacy of these technologies in enhancing farmer performance and alleviating poverty in the country. This research investigates the potential of YMT to improve the performance of yam farmers. The study also evaluates the use of Propensity Score Matching in assessing the impact of a technology on performance/wellbeing.Keyword: Yam minisett technology, adoption, performance, and Propensity Score Matching

Automated furrow irrigation is a new technology being developed commercially and offered to farmers in Australia. Improvements in water, fertilizer and labour efficiencies are possible with the more precise management of irrigation water, albeit with initial capital and ongoing management costs. The systematic quantification of potential benefits is a strength of the analysis reported here, which provides information for cotton growers in the Namoi Valley of northern New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Further, an economic investment analysis which considers the benefits and costs over a 20-year period shows potentially favourable returns on investment in this technology. Not only are there ‘private’ potential economic benefits to cotton growers, but the estimated reduction in greenhouse gas emissions due to improved efficiency of water and nutrient management can provide a wider ‘public’ benefit. When this was included in the economic metric, the investment returns are even higher. This analysis has considered the economics of adopting an improved precision irrigation technology from two different perspectives. Unfortunately the current environmental policy settings in Australia do not allow the wider benefits to be recognized or rewarded. Nevertheless, the environmental gains from improved production efficiency can still be achieved through private decisions.

The focus of this study is to develop an economic modelling framework for the coconut industry in Sri Lanka using the equilibrium displacement modelling approach. This is necessary for two main reasons. With the industry shifting from an export oriented industry to a domestic industry and coconut yield becoming highly variable due to climatic factors, a number of government interventions have been implemented according to market conditions. There are a few previous studies which have assessed the impact of these measures on individual industry sectors. However, there is no economic framework to undertake the assessment of various policies being used for the whole industry. In addition, the Sri Lankan coconut sector is likely to be significantly adversely effected by climate change and there are a number of possible adaptation options being considered, but again there is no framework to undertake an economic assessment of these options. In this study we develop and test an equilibrium displacement model of the Sri Lankan coconut industry that will then be available to analyse the economic impact of different climate and policy scenarios and the distribution of these impacts among the various stakeholders in the industry.

A framework for sharing a limited quantity, but also a variable quantity, of water between irrigation and the environment to maximize social wellbeing is developed and illustrated. The optimal water allocation equates the marginal social value of water across different uses. A simplified illustration allocates water from the Goulburn River in northern Victoria, Australia, between environmental water to increase numbers of Golden Perch (GP) fish stocks and irrigation demand for water for dairy farmers. The value of water for GP is developed using a combination of fish numbers as an ecological response function of water and Choice Model estimates of willingness to pay by Victorian households for improved fish stocks. Irrigation demand for water by dairy farmers is developed using a Linear Programming study. The complex ecological response functions require a numerical search model to evaluate the socially efficient allocation of water between the different uses. The shadow price of water as optimally allocated between the environmental and agricultural uses is developed as seasonal water availability varies. Further development of the framework could include identifying dependencies within the ecological responses and incorporating multiple ecological and agricultural responses in an expanded model. The policy implications include information on the socially efficient allocation of limited water between irrigation and the environment and the value of water when shared optimally between uses.