Approximately 1200 PIC 337 × 1050 pigs (6.80 0.91 kg) were used to evaluate a protease enzyme (CIBENZA DP100, Novus International Inc., St. Charles, MO). This 21d study was performed as a RCBD (block = weight) with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of the following treatments: 1) Enzyme inclusion level (0 vs. 0.05%); and 2) SBM inclusion level [Low: 18 and 22% (phases I and II, respectively) vs. High: 25 and 30% (phases I and II, respectively)]. Changes in dietary phases occurred on d 7. There were no treatment effects in phase I for ADG, ADFI, or G:F (P > 0.10). From d 7 to 21, pigs fed low SBM levels grew slower (P < 0.01; 0.410 vs. 0.431 kg/d) and had lower G:F (P < 0.01; 0.720 vs. 0.750) than pigs fed high SBM levels. ADG of pigs not fed the enzyme was lower (P < 0.01; 0. 404 vs. 0.436 kg) and had a lower G:F (P < 0.01; 0. 723 vs. 0.746) compared to pigs fed the enzyme. There was a SBM × enzyme interaction (P < 0.05): Effects of enzyme supplementation were bigger (P < 0.05) in low SBM diets compared to high SBM diets for ADG (High SBM = 0.427 vs. 0.436 kg, vs. Low SBM = 0.381 vs. 0.436 kg, for 0 and 0.05% enzyme, respectively) and G:F (High SBM = 0.746 vs. 0.752, vs. Low SBM = 0.699 vs. 0.741, for 0 and 0.05% enzyme, respectively). At d 21, pigs not receiving the enzyme were lighter (P < 0.001; 13.9 vs. 14.3 kg) than pigs fed the enzyme. Pigs fed low SBM levels were lighter (P < 0.01; 14.0 vs. 14.2 kg) than pigs fed high SBM levels. For the overall period (d 0–21), there was a SBM × enzyme interaction (P < 0.05): Effects of enzyme supplementation were bigger (P < 0.05) in low SBM diets compared to high SBM diets for ADG (High SBM = 0.350 vs. 0.354 kg, vs. Low SBM = 0.318 vs. 0.354 kg, for 0 and 0.05% enzyme, respectively) and G:F (High SBM = 0.787 vs. 0.781, vs. Low SBM = 0.735 vs. 0.775, for 0 and 0.05% enzyme, respectively). Overall, there is a significant response to the enzyme in nursery pigs, although further work is needed to duplicate results and verify that there is no true response when the enzyme is fed in high SBM level diets.

A total of 1167 pigs (66.36 ± 4.10 kg) were used to evaluate differences in 3 copper sources added in the late grow-finish phase. Treatment diets included a control (CON) with no added copper, and the CON diet plus 150 ppm of CuCl2, CON plus 150 ppm of CuSO4, or CON plus 80 ppm of organic copper (Cu Mintrex®, Novus International, Inc., St. Charles, MO). Diet phase changes occurred at d 21 and 32 d post-allotment. Pigs were penned in blocks of either 24 or 25 pigs/pen with a computerized feed system delivering feed to single-sided feeders. There were a total of 12 replications per treatment group. Data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS with pen as the experimental unit and treatment as a fixed effect. From d 0 to 21 of the study, there were no significant differences (P > 0.24) in performance for the overall effect of CON-fed pigs compared to those fed supplemental copper, regardless of source. During the second phase, there was a tendency for increased ADG (0.84, 0.88, 0.89, and 0.89 kg/d; P = 0.06, respectively) among pigs that were fed supplemental copper, regardless of source or inclusion rate. The inclusion of supplemental copper significantly improved (0.31, 0.34, 0.35, 0.33; P < 0.01, respectively) the G:F, regardless of source or dose. At d 32, all pigs were weighed and first markets occurred. At this point, all pigs were fed a common diet that included ractopamine and all pens remained on study until completely marketed (approximately 35 d after the first market date). There were no differences (0.98, 0.98, 0.98, 0.97; P > 0.27) in the growth performance of pigs during the ractopamine phase. For the overall period (d 0 to market), copper supplementation improved G:F (0.33, 0.34, 0.35, 0.34; P = 0.01, respectively). When organic copper was fed, the response was not significantly different from the CON, but did tend (P = 0.10) to have improved G:F. There also tended to be a decrease in overall ADFI compared to the CON when either CuSO4 or CuCl2 was fed (2.67, 2.46, 2.56 kg/d; P = 0.13, respectively). In conclusion, the addition of supplemental copper, regardless of source, resulted in improved G:F in late finishing swine diets.

Eight hundred and two barrows and gilts (5.48 ± 0.57 kg) were used to evaluate the use of bovine plasma in early nursery phases. Treatments included a bovine plasma ration (4% in phase 1 ration and 2% in phase 2 ration) and a negative control diet with no animal plasma protein. Pigs were started on experimental rations on the day of weaning (∼21 d of age) and arrival to the facility (d 0). A 3-phase nursery program was utilized, and diet changes occurred at 7, 20, and 39 d postwean. Pigs were penned in blocks of either 24 or 25 pigs/pen with a computerized feed system delivering feed to single-sided feeders. There were a total of 24 replications per treatment group. Treatment diets were fed until d 20, at which point all pigs were fed a common nursery 3 diet. Diets were formulated to meet or exceed nutrient requirements. Treatments were equalized across gender, and data were analyzed as a randomized complete block design using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS with pen as the experimental unit and treatment as a fixed effect. There was a tendency for an improvement in ADG (P = 0.07) when pigs were fed plasma during the first 7 d. From d 7 to 20, ADG was significantly higher (P = 0.01) in pigs fed plasma. While G:F was not significantly different (P = 0.28), increased intake resulted in a heavier (P = 0.04) pig at d 20 when plasma was included in the diet. From d 20 to d 39, a common nursery diet was fed, and ADG and G:F were no longer significantly different based on treatment. Overall (d 0 to 39), there was a significant increase (P = 0.01 and 0.04, respectively) in ADG when pigs were fed plasma from d 0 to 20. Based on the results of this study, pigs that were fed plasma from d 0 to 20 have a higher ADG. Evaluation of bovine plasma in early nursery diets Evaluation of bovine plasma in early nursery diets

Purpose: To determine the efficacy of an equine joint supplement STEADFAST ® and/or its active components (Natural Eggshell Membrane

An experiment was conducted to define the lysine requirement of neonatal pigs fed a liquid diet up to 5.5 kg bodyweight (BW). Neonatal pigs, 1–2 days old, with an initial bodyweight of 1.63 ± 0.04 kg, were randomly allotted to 10 isocaloric diets varying in lysine concentration from 0.76 to 1.62 g lysine/MJ gross energy (GE). Diets were formulated using whey protein concentrate and casein as protein sources and contained similar balance of indispensable amino acids. On day 1 of the experiment, pigs were fed 350 g liquid diet/kg metabolic bodyweight (BW0.75) according to the average BW of all pigs. On day 2, feeding rate was increased to 400 g/kg BW0.75. Increments were 100 g/kg BW0.75 per day for the subsequent 3 days until pigs reached 700 g/kg BW0.75 on day 5. Thereafter, feed was offered to pigs at a common feeding level of 700 g/kg BW0.75 each day until they reached 5.5 kg BW. Feed intake and BW were measured daily. Concentration of fat in the carcass decreased (P < 0.05) and the ratio of crude protein (CP) to fat in the carcass increased (P < 0.05) linearly as lysine inclusion increased. Both average daily gain and CP accretion increased (quadratic, P < 0.05), whereas fat accretion decreased (quadratic, P < 0.05) as lysine inclusion increased. Using the maximum point of the quadratic function, the estimated dietary lysine required for maximal growth (271 g/day) and CP accretion (45.2 g/day) was 1.41 and 1.32 g lysine/MJ GE, respectively. The dietary lysine required, estimating the requirement at the lower limit of the 95% confidence interval for CP accretion of 42.9 g/day, was 1.12 g lysine/MJ GE. Gross efficiency of CP deposition (CP deposition/CP intake) achieved a maximum of 0.85 at 1.01 g lysine/MJ GE.

Three studies were conducted to investigate whether a chelated Cu can replace CuSO4 as a growth promoter in pigs. In Exp. 1, a total of 240 piglets (Large White×Landrace, 7.36±0.10 kg) were randomly allocated to 1 of 3 treatments with 8 replicates and 10 piglets per pen. Treatments included a NRC control (CuSO4, 6 mg/kg), two Cu supplementations from either CuSO4 or Cu(HMTBa)2 at 170 mg/kg. Pigs fed Cu(HMTBa)2 were 6.0% heavier than pigs fed either the NRC control or 170 mg/kg CuSO4 (p = 0.03) at the end of the experiment. During the 42 days of experimental period, pigs fed Cu(HMTBa)2 gained 9.0% more (p = 0.01), tended to eat more feed (p = 0.09), and had better feed efficiency (p = 0.06) than those fed CuSO4. Compared with the 6 mg/kg CuSO4 NRC control, liver Cu was increased 2.7 times with 170 mg/kg CuSO4 supplementation, and was further increased with Cu(HMTBa)2 (4.5 times, p<0.05). In Exp. 2, a total of 616 crossbred piglets (PIC, 5.01±0.25 kg) were randomly allocated to 1 of 4 treatments with 7 replicates and 22 piglets per pen. Treatments included a NRC control (from CuSO4), and three pharmaceutical levels of Cu (150 mg/kg) supplemented either from CuSO4, tri-basic copper chloride (Cu2[OH]3Cl), or Cu(HMTBa)2. Pigs fed CuSO4 or Cu(HMTBa)2 had better feed efficiency (p = 0.01) and tended to gain more (p = 0.08) compared with those fed the NRC control. Pigs fed Cu2(OH)3Cl were intermediate. Pigs fed Cu(HMTBa)2 had the highest liver Cu, which was significantly higher than those fed (Cu2[OH]3Cl) or the negative control (p = 0.01). In Exp. 3, a total of 1,048 pigs (PIC, 32.36±0.29 kg) were allotted to 6 treatments with 8 replicates per treatment and 20 to 22 pigs per pen. The treatments included a NRC control with 4 mg/kg Cu from CuSO4, a positive control with 160 mg/kg Cu from CuSO4, and incremental levels of Cu(HMTBa)2 at 20, 40, 80, and 160 mg/kg. During the overall experimental period of 100 days, no benefit from 160 mg/kg CuSO4 was observed. Pigs fed Cu(HMTBa)2 had increased ADG (linear and quadratic, p≤0.05) and feed efficiency (linear and quadratic, p≤0.05) up to 80 mg/kg and no further improvement was observed at 160 mg/kg for the whole experimental period. Pigs fed 80 mg/kg Cu(HMTBa)2 weighed 1.8 kg more (p = 0.07) and were 2.3 kg heavier in carcass (p<0.01) compared with pigs fed 160 mg/kg CuSO4. In addition, loin depth was increased with increased Cu(HMTBa)2 supplementation with pigs fed 80 mg/kg Cu(HMTBa)2 had the greatest loin depth (p<0.05). In summary, Cu(HMTBa)2 can be used to replace high CuSO4 as a growth promoter in nursery and grower-finisher pigs.

Zearalenone is a potent mycotoxin that has estrogenic properties. In vitro results indicate that zearalenone metabolites down-regulate proteins associated with protein synthesis (protein kinase B, Akt) and cellular proliferation (extracellular signal-regulated kinase, ERK). The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of zearalenone on (1) growth performance and signaling for protein synthesis, and (2) reproductive tract development. At 28 d of age, gilts were randomly assigned to consume a commercial basal diet (C) or C+1.5 mg/kg zearalenone (n = 10) for 4 wk, at which time gilts were euthanized, urine collected, and tissue collected. No differences were observed in average daily gain, average daily feed intake, or gain:feed (P>0.28). Reproductive tract weight (2.4-fold) and uterine endometrial gland development (50%) were increased in zearalenone fed gilts (P<0.01). In uterus, estrogen receptor (ER)-α expression was unchanged (P>0.28), but gilts consuming zearalenone had 2.0- and 3.5-fold higher abundance of ER-β mRNA and protein, respectively (P<0.01). No differences were observed in Akt, mammalian target of rapamycin, or ERK abundance or phosphorylation in muscle (P>0.36). Zearalenone had no effect on growth performance or skeletal muscle signaling in prepubertal gilts, but zearalenone increased reproductive tract size and glandular development, possibly due, in part, to altering the expression of ER-β.

Supplementation with chelated trace minerals promotes sow longevity, reproductive ability and skeletal health, all of which contribute to the herd’s bottom line.

The objective was to evaluate the effect of feeding oxidized corn oil with or without a dietary antioxidant (AOX) on performance, tissue oxidative status, and meat quality in barrows. One hundred sixty barrows were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial of treatments in a complete randomized block design with 8 pens per treatment and 5 pigs per pen. Diets contained 5.0 mg/kg of 1 of 2 types of corn oil (fresh or oxidized) with or without antioxidant. Final oxidized oil was produced in a heated container by continuously bubbling air heated to 95°C at a rate of 80 L/min to reach a target peroxide value of approximately 150 and 7.5 mEq/kg in the final diet. After 56 d, barrows fed diets formulated with fresh oil had increased ADG (P = 0.03) and ADFI (P = 0.04) and heavier final BW (P = 0.03) than barrows fed oxidized oil. Increased G:F (P = 0.07) was observed for barrows fed diets with AOX after 28 d of feeding but not after 56 d of feeding (P = 0.67) when compared with barrows not fed AOX. An increase (P = 0.06) in plasma thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values, a decrease (P = 0.03) in plasma glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzyme activity, and a decrease (P = 0.01) in liver vitamin E concentrations were observed in barrows fed diets with oxidized oil. Dietary AOX reduced plasma protein carbonyl content regardless of oil type (P = 0.04). Barrows fed fresh oil had 4.4% heavier HCW (P = 0.01) and 0.7 percentage units increase in dressing percentage (P = 0.01) compared with barrows fed oxidized oil. Loin TBARS values from barrows fed AOX were lower (P < 0.001) after 14 and 21 d of storage in both fresh and oxidized oil groups. In summary, oxidized oil impaired growth performance and caused oxidation stress. Dietary AOX partially ameliorated the negative effects of oxidized oil in finishing pigs by reducing protein oxidation and improving shelf life.

Tribasic copper chloride (TBCC) has been shown to have better bioavailability than copper sulfate pentahydrate (CS) when fed at levels in excess of the requirement. Our objective was to determine if this relationship holds at levels below the Cu requirement. After depleting Cu levels for 7 d, 3 pens of 4 chicks/pen were fed a purified diet or a sorghumsoy diet supplemented with either 0, 1, 3, 4.5 or 6 ppm Cu. LPS was injected in order to initiate an acute phase response and bioavailability was calculated by common-intercept multiple linear regression. Prior to LPS, TBCC resulted in greater (P < 0.05) bioavailability as indicated by weight gain and tendon Cu levels with both diet types. Following LPS injection, TBCC resulted in greater bioavailability based on the plasma acute phase protein, ceruloplasmin (P = 0.01; slope ratio = 1.26). Bioavailabilities of the Cu sources did not differ for hematocrit or liver Cu. In general, these results indicate higher bioavailability of TBCC when dietary Cu is deficient in both healthy and inflammatorystressed chicks.

We conducted two experiments to determine the efficacy of exogenous porcine somatotropin (pST) on enhancing performance during an early phase of growth (10 kg initial BW) when pigs are already growing efficiently and have high rates of lean deposition and low rates of lipid deposition. In Exp. 1, performance was measured on 45 barrows that received one of five daily doses (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mg/kg BW) of recombinant pST. In Exp. 2, 27 barrows were used in a slaughter-balance study in which two groups received daily either buffer (control) or 120 mg/kg BW of pST and the third group was slaughtered for initial body composition. In both experiments, pigs received daily i.m. injections of their respective dose for 20 d. The diet was fed for ad libitum consumption and calculated to contain 3.5 Mcal DE/kg, 22.3% CP, and 1.5% lysine. Administra- tion of pST failed to alter overall growth rate or efficiency of gain in either experiment. However, in Exp. 2 pigs treated with pST had increased deposition rates of protein and water but reduced lipid deposition rates. Furthermore, pST treatment resulted in charac- teristic reductions in plasma urea nitrogen and elevations in glucose and NEFA. Plasma concentra- tions of insulin and IGF-I were also increased, but pST reduced IGF-II and IGF binding protein-2. Overall, the data demonstrated that very young pigs respond to pST with enhanced lean tissue accretion and metabolic changes, but the response is attenuated compared with previous studies in older growing pigs.

J. Anim. Sci. Vol. 87, E-Suppl. 2/J. Dairy Sci. Vol. 92, E-Suppl. 1 and pigs were weighed and bled weekly. Serum was analyzed for blood urea nitrogen (BUN), total bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). Pen feed intake was lower (P < 0.01) in aflatoxin treated barrows (high and low) than control barrows from d 29 onward, and was lower (P < 0.05) in high aflatoxin treated barrows than low aflatoxin treated barrows from day 42 onward. Average daily gain was lower (P < 0.01) in high aflatoxin treated barrows than control barrows from d 49 onward, and was similar between control and low aflatoxin treated barrows except on d 69, when ADG was lower (P = 0.0449) in aflatoxin treated barrows. High aflatoxin treated barrows had lower bilirubin than low aflatoxin treated barrows on d 27 (P = 0.0372) and 62 (P = 0.0030). Additionally, bilirubin was higher in high aflatoxin treated barrows than control barrows on d 55 (P = 0.0480), 62 (P = 0.0052) and 69 (P = 0.0304). High and low aflatoxin treated barrows had lower BUN (P < 0.01) than control barrows on d 6 and low aflatoxin treated barrows additionally had lower (P = 0.0018) BUN than control barrows on d 20. These results demonstrate that performance and blood parameters in young growing barrows are affected by consumption of an aflatoxin-contaminated diet, especially when the concentration of aflatoxin is high (≥ 500 ppb) and the diet is fed over an extended period of time (≥ 1month).

Developmental programming refers to the long-term effects of various `stressors’ (e.g., maternal nutrient excess or limitation) on fetal or neonatal development; that is, `programming’ of organ systems during a discrete developmental period resulting in compromised function even in adulthood. This concept was first hypothesized based on the results of epidemiological studies in humans and has been subsequently confirmed with controlled animal studies. In addition to its effects in humans, developmental programming likely has profound implications for the efficiency of livestock production. The various large animal models of developmental programming will be described along with the effects that have been observed in various organ systems. The models to be presented include those using cattle, sheep, and swine, and also will include models of maternal and neonatal nutrition (including energy, protein, and specific nutrients such as selenium), maternal age, maternal and fetal genotype, maternal environmental stress, and multiple fetuses. The critical importance of large animal models of developmental programming in solving socioeconomic and health-related issues also will be discussed. Moreover, the consequences of developmental programming for livestock production will be discussed, along with potential therapeutic approaches to minimize or at least manage these deleterious effects. Supported by NIH grants HL64141 and HD45784, and USDA-NRI grants 2005-35206-15281 and 2007-012. We thank the many colleagues and students who have contributed to our research efforts over the years.