Shipping containers are known as a crucial equipment for global trade. Most of their lifespan containers are spending empty, being in process of repositioning or sitting in a yard. Increasing trade imbalances globally set up empty container logistics as one of the main concerns in container shipping industry. In line with that issue, this paper will analyse the roots of empty container imbalance and port congestion, emphasizing the importance of proper empty container management and challanges which appear along the way. Results of the research show that there is room for improvement while dealing with management of empty containers which primarly implies a cognition of the imbalance problem and long-term predictions as well as mutual cooperation of all parties involved. Furthermore, new solutions and higher level of digitalization will be required to succesully and efficiently handle today’s challanging situations. Reducing empty container transport to a minimum is the key point, where foldable containers and container interchange between carriers can greatly contribute. Efficiency of empty container management must be reflected in increased environmental sustainability throughout the shipping process.

The latest container vessel grounding in the Suez Canal, which occurred on 23 March 2021 (the Ever Given), raised many questions regarding the safety of navigation. The sudden concern about safety is due to fears that traffic flow through the Suez Canal could be blocked for longer periods of time. Besides external forces imposed by wind, in this case bank effect had a significant influence on the ship’s grounding. Bank effect occurs due to restricted water flow caused by narrow waterways. Many fairway design standards consider sloped banks such as those of the Suez Canal as unsubstantial in bank-effect forces. This paper analyses the impact of sloped banks on container ship trajectory and proposes minimal distances that may decrease bank-effect forces in order to reduce the risk of vessel grounding and increase the safety of navigation. However, this type of accident has happened before and may occur again due to a small sailing distance from the bank in cases where vessel speed is increased.

Abstract ‘Close-quarters situation’ is a term used in the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea. As the term is not precisely defined, this paper analyses the interpretations and definitions of the term by various authors or courts, based on judicial processes and judgments. In the end, the authors suggest their own definition of the term ‘close-quarters situation’. Knowing the minimum distance from another ship and the time to the closest point of approach at which collision may still be avoided by one's own manoeuvre is information that every ship's officer needs to know. In accordance with the proposed definition of the term ‘close-quarters situation’, minimum distances between ships and time to the closest point of approach in which the ship can still take action to avoid a collision by its own manoeuvring are determined by means of simulations on a navigational simulator. A total of 168 simulations were performed with three fine-form vessel sizes and three full-form vessel sizes. Due to the extensive amount of data, the paper presents the results for one vessel only.

This paper examines the correlation between strong wind and the frequency of small leisure craft grounding by analysing the available data on maritime accidents in the Adriatic. The primary goal of this study was to verify the hypothesis from prior research that strong wind is the prime cause of groundings in certain areas of the Adriatic. Contrary to the conclusions of the prior research, the new analysis indicates a far more uniform spatial distribution of wind-caused grounding accidents across all the examined areas of Croatian Adriatic waters. Furthermore, the analysis indicates that most grounding accidents occur in light wind conditions, suggesting that groundings can predominantly be attributed to factors other than strong wind. Several important drawbacks of the analysis stemming from the lack of accurate data on accidents in Croatian waters are discussed and suggestions given for the improved collection thereof that would greatly contribute to the future research on this topic. The inability to determine the exact causes of particular accidents from available data makes it impossible to accurately establish the number of grounding accidents caused by strong wind. In the future, more detailed statistical data could improve our understanding of the correlation between adverse weather conditions and recreational vessel accidents in the Adriatic.

In order to determine fairway width accurately and to ensure an adequate level of safety, it is necessary to fulfil different safety standards and user needs. There are a number of international recommendations for fairway design, but the recommendations by Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses (PIANC), Puerto Del Estado (ROM 3·1) and the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) are some of the best known. However, in all of these recommendations, additional width due to ship-bank effect is obsolete and needs to be improved. The objective of this paper is to use a navigational simulator with a predefined ship-bank interaction model and fine form ships models to determine the ship trajectory caused by ship-bank effect. The methodology of research used in the paper consisted of using ship trajectory data to propose a deterministic model for improving fairway additional width due to ship-bank effect. Results showed that such a method is not time-consuming and can improve fairway design in terms of ship-bank effect, increasing additional width accuracy.

One of the basic tasks in the shipping industry is to ensure safe manoeuvring and navigation through channels and confined waterways. This paper has presented a practical and theoretical approach to the assessment of safe manoeuvring in waterways based on knowledge and experience. Experienced mariners had to sail through an approach to Thorn channel in a calm weather using their own knowledge and methods to determine variable angles of rudder deflection. The navigational performance has been determined in terms of deviation from the intended path. The results have indicated the difference in distances of the ship paths between all respondents as compared to the intended path. Besides determining the ship's turn path, it is necessary to consider the factor F which represents the distance between the WOP and the beginning of the actual turn and the width of the swept track. However, the aim of this paper is to present a control methodology for mariners while working at sea.

Interaction of two vessels during head-on encounter acts as short and strong force. Consequences can reflect on vessels’ handling causing unwanted effects. This phenomenon was elaborated in the paper, considering influence of interaction force and its dependence on main recognized factors: mutual vessels’ distance, speed and depth under the keel. Besides interaction force components, analyses comprised other relevant factors as vessel’ heading, course alterations and drift of vessel due to interaction. Planned and, according to main factors, defined scenarios were conducted in navigational simulator with usage of navigational areas creation tools. After simulations and data post-processing, obtained results were summarized. Correlation of results with mathematical relations describing interaction was conducted. In the conclusion chapter, final inferences are stated, with some of observations which in the opinion of authors are significant. Conducted analyses, obtained results and derived conclusions represent basis for further research, thus future activities regarding interaction phenomenon are proposed.

The main objective of this paper proposes the model for the decision-making process with the intent of optimising the collision avoidance in the crossing situation on the open sea. Using the IMO Resolution standards for ship manoeuvrability, along with the equation for determining the required distance of the closest point of approach (CPA) and other parameters for own ship and the target ship, it can be possible to determine the distance at which to start alternation and collision avoidance. The research results that involved ship officers and captains with the aim of determining the Closest Point of Approach (CPA) showed a very subjective assessment method. The presented model obtained by the simulation method to determine the CPA between ships on the open sea is the key finding of this research and leaves room for further research and its further implementation on unmanned ships.

The Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, Croatia, manages the European Union (EU) project “Avoiding Collisions at Sea” (ACTs). The project is funded by the European programme “Leonardo da Vinci”. Other maritime education and training institutions participating in this project come from Great Britain, Spain, Slovenia, Bulgaria and Turkey. The purpose of this research was to identify skill gaps in knowledge and teaching of COLREGs (International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972 - Rules) for nautical Bachelor of Science (BSc) students and experienced deck officers. The analysis of the research on marine accidents has identified vessel collisions as one of the most frequent types of accidents. Further research showed that human error and misinterpretation of the Rules are the most frequent reasons for vessel collisions. Using a questionnaire, nautical students/navigating cadets and navigating officers' understanding of the Rules was tested. The results showed skill gaps in understanding of some parts of the COLREGs due to wrong interpretation and application of the Rules. The authors claim that it is possible to improve the professional competence of navigating officers by applying proper learning methods using real-life scenarios and e-learning.

Avoiding Collisions at (ACTs) was a project funded by the European programme Leonardo da Vinci and is managed by Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka, Croatia. Other partners who are participating in this project are from United Kingdom, Spain, Slovenia, Bulgaria and Turkey. The goal of this project was to detect gaps in knowledge, understanding and applying of COLREGs (International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972 - Rules) and to develop new way of teaching COLREGs. Research was conducted on more than 1500 seafarers, nautical students and amateur seafarers. On the base of research results, new teaching material was prepared which consists of more than 280 on-line scenarios explaining how to use the Rules in real-life situations. Each scenario consists of description of scenario and explanation which Rule(s) apply and why. Where it is appropriate, scenario is accompanied by video of bird’s-eye view, bridge view, radar screen view and ECDIS view. Developed new innovative way of teaching COLREGs will improve understanding of the Rules.

The term “navigation” implies actions undertaken to enable the vessel to sail safely from the port of departure to the port of arrival in a defined period of time. The navigation of the vessel is exposed to many dangers and accidents which can occur and may have far reaching consequences on people, society, property and marine environment. By analysing maritime accidents in the past, vessel collisions were identified as one of the most frequent type of accidents. Furthermore, it is known that human error and wrong interpretation of the Rules are the most frequent reasons for vessels collisions. Recognizing that issue, the European Union approved the project Avoiding Collisions at (ACTs) funded by the European programme Leonardo da Vinci. The purpose of this research is to identify skill gaps in the knowledge and teaching of COLREGs (International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972 - Rules) for nautical engineering students and maritime professionals and non-professionals. The research results obtained have clearly showed skill gaps in the understanding of some parts of COLREGs due to wrong interpretation and application of the Rules. The only way to change this in the future is to improve learning methods of COLREGs inter alia using these research results.

U e-biblioteci Terminoloski rjecnici Strune objavljuju se terminoloske zbirke koje su nastale kao rezultat pojedinih projekata u okviru programa Izgradnja hrvatskoga strukovnog nazivlja – Struna. Struna je terminoloska baza Instituta za hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje u kojoj se terminografski i jezicno obrađuje nazivlje raznih struka radi stvaranja, usklađivanja i sustavljivanja nazivlja na hrvatskom jeziku. Od 2012. godine baza se može pretraživati na internetskoj adresi http://struna.ihjj.hr/. Cilj je ove biblioteke uciniti pojedinacne terminoloske zbirke Strune dostupnima i u cjelovitu tekstualnom obliku koji je moguce pretraživati po raznim kriterijima i po potrebi otisnuti. U ovom se svesku donosi nazivlje obrađeno u okviru projekta Hrvatske zaklade za znanost Hrvatsko pomorsko nazivlje – tradicija i suvremena kretanja koji je vodio prof. dr. sc. Boris Pritchard.

The Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG) is a collection of international legal standards adopted in order to avoid collisions at sea. Comprehensive knowledge of these rules is required for all who sail on the sea.The ACTs project (Avoiding Collisions at Sea) investigates the current problems in applying these Rules and intends to develop a new online course making it simpler and easier to understand them. A COLREG questionnaire has been drawn up for research purposes. The purpose of the questionnaire is checking which rules are more difficult to understand.In this paper, the authors analyse the level of understanding of the Rules in a group of secondary maritime school students. The survey results indicate that many of the basic principles of COLREG are neither understood nor applied.

Ship grounding is one of the primary maritime navigation casualties and a result of an error made by the navigating officer, of a technical failure on vital ship equipment or of force majeure. In order to decrease the risk of grounding in such cases, this paper explores the ship movement during navigation when an extraordinary event occurs, such as steering system failure that affects the vessel’s direction directly and speed indirectly. One way to determine the ship movement in such circumstances is by simulating the ship movement on the navigational simulator according to the predefined scenarios, as explained in this paper. A total of 60 scenarios were researched, in the process of which ship type, ship size, ship speed and rudder deflection angle were varied. During the simulation, all relevant data concerning current movement of the ship and a graphical display of the performed simulation were recorded every 30 seconds. On the basis of the simulation results it is possible to determine the worst case scenario which can be used to define the consequence of grounding, one of the parameters necessary for the assessment of the risk of grounding.

Most of the studied effects of human factor on casualties in maritime transport are related to individual ship crew members' subjective approach to solving the problem. That is why a success in ship management greatly depends on skills, knowledge and experience of the master and the officer of the watch. Specialized navigational simulators are very useful aids in the ship handling education. Using these simulators much can be done on the plane of education of shipmasters, deck officers and certainly of pilots. During the education of students and experienced nautical personnel, some problems have arisen which needed to be analysed. The most important teaching task is creating a situation as real as possible.

The environmental conditions to which ships are exposed vary depending on the weather and geographical position. Corrosive activity depends on various factors, in particular on salinity and electrical conductivity. Cathode protection of ship hull is required for underwater hull plating and all appendages under waterline (propeller, rudder, etc). The chatodic protection of the hull underwater area can be complete or partial. Complete protection is recommended in case of older vessels because of more frequent damages present in the coatings. Protection is achieved by use of galvanic system or impressed current system. Cathode impressed current system is often used in protection of port structures and facilities. Ships berthed alongside marine facilities protected by this method, can also be coupled on the same system. Output protection current can be adjusted to meet system needs.