Heritage stones are building and ornamental stones that have special significance in human culture. The papers in this volume discuss a wide variety of such materials, including stones from Europe, Asia, North and South America, Africa and Australia. Igneous (basalt, porphyry, granite), sedimentary (sandstone, limestone) and metamorphic (marble, quartzite, gneiss, soapstone, slate) stones are featured. These have been utilized over long periods of time for a wide range of uses contributing to the historical fabric of the built environment. Many of these stones are of international significance and potential Global Heritage Stone Resources – stones that have the requisite qualities for international recognition by the Heritage Stones Subcommission of the International Union of Geological Sciences. The contributions in this volume bring together diverse information on these stones, ranging from their geological setting and quarry locations to mechanical properties, current availability and uses over time. As such, the papers can serve as an entry into the literature on these important stones.

The present study deals with the characterisation of pigments used in two overlaid gothic wall paintings from the former 13 th century Minorite church of St. Francis of Assisi (Koper, Slovenia), in order to define differences in the technologies used. Paint layer samples were analysed via Raman microspectroscopy, supported by SEM/EDS and FT-IR analysis, when necessary. The results revealed that the 14 th century mural was painted mainly a fresco with final elements a secco, a technique typical of Italian mediaeval wall painting. In contrast, the 15 th century painting was executed mostly a secco , a technique often applied in Northern Europe and the Alpine region. The differences between the two paintings are especially obvious in the pigments applied. While the earlier painting is characterised by azurite, carbon black, red and yellow ochres, lime white and green earth, the palette used for the younger painting is much broader. In addition to red and yellow ochres, carbon black and lime white, lead pigments such as lead white, red lead and lead-tin yellow type I were also determined, as well as a number of expensive pigments including cinnabar, azurite and malachite. Also found in the younger painting was the rare orange yellow pigment vanadinite. In both layers, azurite was applied a secco for the background area. Gilding was confirmed in both layers, carried out as application of gold leaves on red bole (in the earlier mural) and on mordant (on a younger, superimposed (overlaid painting), which is quite exclusive and rare for Slovene mediaeval painting. In the younger layer also a use of tin foil for secondary elements was discovered.

In the process of protection and consolidation of valuable materials, the efficiency is the crucial property that needs to be considered. TiO2/ZnAl layered double hydroxide (LDH) coating and silicate- and carbonate-based consolidants were synthesized and proposed to be used for protection and consolidation of four porous mineral substrates: brick, stone, render and mortar. The photocatalytic efficiency of TiO2/ZnAl LDH coating, as well as consolidation efficiency of two consolidants, both applied on model substrates, were studied. The photocatalytic coating showed significant activity and performed well after the durability tests involving rinsing and freezing/thawing procedures. After treatment with both consolidants, a serious enhancement of consolidation of the used substrates was found. On the other hand, the application of TiO2/ZnAl LDH, as well as consolidants, caused negligible changes in the water vapour permeability values and in appearance of the porous mineral substrates, indicating a high level of compatibility.

Fly ash and phosphogypsum were used as Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) by-products for the synthesis of belite-sulfoaluminate clinkers. The influence of raw mixture composition and firing temperature was investigated. Clinkers and cements were examined by X-ray powder diffraction and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The compressive strength of the cements was determined after 28 days. Clinker phases identified included ye’elimite, ß-phase of belite, ternesite and gehlenite, while the main hydration product of the cement pastes was ettringite. The results showed that belite-sulfoaluminate cements can be fabricated with a compressive strength of 45.9 N/mm2 by firing the raw mixture (70 wt.% marl, 10 wt.% bauxite and 20 wt.% phosphogypsum) at a temperature of 1320°C/1h.

An overview of alternative repair mortars based on metakaolin, fly ash and slag, produced by alkali activation technology, and future trends. EN 1504-3 requirements for the performance (including durability) and safety of products and systems to be used for the structural and nonstructural repair of concrete structures. A discussion on some laboratory results of repair mortars based on metakaolin, fly ash and slag and mixtures thereof in regard to their mechanical properties, porosity, carbonation, and sulfate resistance.

A primary aim of RILEM TC 267-TRM: “Tests for Reactivity of Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)” is to compare and evaluate the performance of conventional and novel SCM reactivity test methods across a wide range of SCMs. To this purpose, a round robin campaign was organized to investigate 10 different tests for reactivity and 11 SCMs covering the main classes of materials in use, such as granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash, natural pozzolan and calcined clays. The methods were evaluated based on the correlation to the 28 days relative compressive strength of standard mortar bars containing 30% of SCM as cement replacement and the interlaboratory reproducibility of the test results. It was found that only a few test methods showed acceptable correlation to the 28 days relative strength over the whole range of SCMs. The methods that showed the best reproducibility and gave good correlations used the R 3 model system of the SCM and Ca(OH) 2 , supplemented with alkali sulfate/carbonate. The use of this simplified model system isolates the reaction of the SCM and the reactivity can be easily quantified from the heat release or bound water content. Later age (90 days) strength results also correlated well with the results of the IS 1727 (Indian standard) reactivity test, an accelerated strength test using an SCM/Ca(OH) 2 -based model system. The current standardized tests did not show acceptable correlations across all SCMs, although they performed better when latently hydraulic materials (blast furnace slag) were excluded. However, the Frattini test, Chapelle and modified Chapelle test showed poor interlaboratory reproducibility, demonstrating experimental difficulties. The TC 267-TRM will pursue the development of test protocols based on the R 3 model systems. Acceleration and improvement of the reproducibility of the IS 1727 test will be attempted as well.

The pozzolanic activity of five different types of ash was studied using various direct and indirect methods. In addition to strength activity index (SAI) determination and the Frattini test, ash pozzolanicity was assessed via differential thermal and thermogravimetric analyses (DTA/TG) after curing for 7, 28 and 90 days. The results showed that, due to their respective mineralogical, chemical and physical characteristics, the ashes exhibited different levels of pozzolanic activity in terms of the amount of lime with which they could chemically bind, as well as reaction kinetics. Although SAI and Frattini test results were not in agreement in the case of some of the ashes, DTA/TG analysis revealed that a certain amount of portlandite was consumed, thus confirming the occurrence of a pozzolanic reaction. The results also showed that ashes with higher amounts of reactive SiO2 were more reactive, while those with higher BET surface areas displayed a faster pozzolanic reaction rate.

This paper investigates the properties of injection grouts with different amounts of natural hydraulic lime (NHL) replacement by metakaolin MK1 or MK2. The focus is dedicated to the fresh properties of the NHL-based grouts, as well as to a parallel study of the evolution of compressive strength and phase composition of hardened grouts, through tests at 28, 56, 90 and 900 days. Additionally, at 90 days, the influence of the MK1 and MK2 incorporation on the porosity characteristics of hardened grouts was determined. Tensile bond strength, being one of the key hardened properties of the injection grouts, was for the time being determined only at an early age of 28 days. The results showed that by adding metakaolin at constant fluidity, the water demand of the fresh mixture increases with the increase of the metakaolin content. At the same time the water retention capacity of the grout is enhanced. In a hardened state the addition of metakaolin increases early age and long term compressive strength of the grout. Also, its bond strength can be considerably increased, by applying MK1. Mixtures with metakaolin resulted in the formation of hydration products such as ettringite, hemicarboaluminate and monocarboaluminate, whereas stellerite was present only in the case of higher proportions of metakaolin with a higher BET surface area and Al2O3 content. (C) 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Heavy metal abundance and potential environmental risks are reported for surface sediments (n = 21) from the Port of Koper area, Republic of Slovenia. The enrichment factor (EF) indicates minor enrichment in arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), and zinc (Zn), moderately to severely enriched with nickel (Ni). The trace metal chemistries, in the context of sediment quality guidelines (SQG), imply adverse threshold effect concentrations (TEC) and probable effect concentrations (PEC), for Ni only. Sediment sequential leaching experiments demonstrated that the majority of heavy metals were of natural lithogenic origin and low bioavailability. The heavy metals' potential for Risk Assessment Code values exhibited no or low anthropogenic environmental burden, with the exception of Mo.

Within InnoWEE project (Innovative pre-fabricated components including different waste construction materials reducing building energy and minimising environmental impact) construction and demolition waste (CDW) were processed into fine fractions which were further embedded into innovative high performance prefabricated geopolymeric panels. CDW fractions consisted of bricks, concrete, mortars, and wood chips. As a binder slag and metakaolin were used and activated by mixture of K/Na-silicate and KOH/NaOH. Optimized compositions were defined and panels were produced into sizes of 50 cm x 50 cm with the intended use for contact bonded (ETICs like) or ventilated façades. One type of panels was produced by using mainly inorganic CDW and are designated as high density geopolymer panels (HDP), another type was made of at least 40 % of CDW woodchips and designated as wood- based geopolymer panels (WGP). Panels were assessed for their durability according to the provisions of ETAG 004 and other relevant standards for façade systems; among them freeze – thaw resistance, impact resistance, water vapour permeability, capillary water uptake. Results showed that the performance of such panels is suitable for inteded use. “This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 723916”.

This paper presents a comparison of consolidant effectiveness for a newly developed consolidant based on soluble calcium compound calcium acetoacetate and two nano-lime-based consolidants available on the market, i.e., CaLoSiL (R) E15 and Nanorestore (R). Impressionist wall paintings made using the fresco technique in the Franciscan Church in Ljubljana were selected for in-situ studies. In order to monitor the colour differences and consolidation effectiveness before, and a few months after, the application of the consolidants, different non-destructive and micro-destructive methods were used. The colour differences were assessed visually and using spectrophotometry, while the consolidation effectiveness was monitored using three methods: the ultrasound velocity method, the surface hardness method and the DRMS method. We demonstrated the best recovery in terms of mechanical properties and witha negligible effect on the wall paintings' appearances after the treatment with the new consolidant. Both nano-lime-based consolidants show a less pronounced reinforcement in the mechanical strength-smaller increase in the drilling-resistance and the surface hardness. The formation of a white haze with the nano-lime consolidants led to a considerable change in the colours of the wall paintings. (C) 2017 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

This study concerns the microfacies characterization of white and black limestone tesserae from selected Roman floor mosaics in Slovenia, with the aim of defining their provenance. We investigated 42 tesserae from 15 different mosaics from the archaeological sites of Ljubljana, Izola, Mošnje, Ptuj, Črnomelj and Šentpavel, dated from the first century bc to the fifth century ad . Among the studied tesserae, 13 different microfacies were identified: eight black and five white. The most common were mudstones with ostracods (65% of black tesserae) and wacke‐packstones with miliolids (85% of white tesserae). The majority of the identified facies can be found in the Cretaceous successions of the Dinaric Carbonate Platform in south‐western Slovenia, north‐eastern Italy and south‐eastern Croatia, suggesting a regional or imported origin of the tesserae.

This chapter represents the mineralogical, geochemical and isotopic characteristics of recent lacustrine sediments, shells of the Anodonta cygnea and fish species (Rutilus rutilus dojranensis) from the Lake Dojran (FY Republic of Macedonia, southern part of the Serbo-Macedonian Massif (SMM)) which provide indirect evidence regarding biomineralization and calcification processes as well as various geological problems. Environmental pollution can seriously contribute to different biological processes concerning the condition of physiological secretion of carbonate material into the shells. For comparison, sediments and fish species V. melanops from the Lake Kalimanci, located in northern part of the SMM, were also implicated into the study. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and C and O stable isotope analyses were performed, and thereupon enrichment factor (EF) values were calculated. The XRD results revealed close association of sediment mineralogy with the prevailing metamorphic, volcanic and igneous rocks of the region surrounding both lakes (Dojran and Kalimanci). According to the EF value results, surficial Lake Dojran sediments are little enriched with Co, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn, moderately enriched with Au, Ni and Sb, moderately severely enriched with Au, severely enriched with Sb and very severely enriched with As. This elemental enrichment originates from various geogenic (geological background and polymetallic mineralization) and anthropogenic (tourism, traffic, coatings, untreated wastewater discharge and agrochemicals) sources. Calculated EF revealed that surficial sediments from Lake Kalimanci are extremely severe enriched with Pb, Zn, and Cd, meanwhile As and Cu shows very severe enrichment. Comparing to Lake Dojran, calculated EF is much higher in Lake Kalimanci than in Dojran. Stable isotope signature results showed that Lake Dojran sediments were strongly influenced by evaporation effect. Their δ18O values range from -5.60 to +1.49 ‰ and the δ13CVPDB composition range from -6.45 to -1.65 ‰. Shells Anodonta cygnea are mainly composed from mineral aragonite and their δ18O values varies between 0.43 ‰ and +1.94 ‰, and δ13CVPDB between -2.48 to -1.72 ‰. δ18O signature in shells might be explained by precipitation of the carbonate from isotopically heavier oxygen lake water. The unussualy heavy skeletal oxygen suggested calcification at the elevated temperature and evaporation. Analyses also identified particularly high levels for Cr, Hg, Ni and Pb in fish (V. Melanops) and frog (R. Temporaria) samples from Lake Kalimanci with mean values [µgkg-1]: 1090 – 6.5, 339 – 117, 567 – 5100 and 1127 – 435, respectively. Meanwhile, the contents of Cr, Hg, Ni and Pb in fish samples (R. rutilus dojranensis) from Lake Dojran are a bit lower [µgkg-1]: 2320, 1690, 700 and 50.

Granodiorite from the Pohorje Mountains (northeastern Slovenia) is considered the highest quality natural stone in Slovenia. Pohorje granodiorite is a grey, calc-alkaline igneous rock of Miocene age (18.7 Ma) that is distinguished by thick white aplite−pegmatite veins. It mainly consists of plagioclase, quartz, and K-feldspar, subsidiary biotite and a small amount of hornblende. It is characterized by high density, low water absorption, and low porosity, so that it exhibits high frost and salt resistance, as well as a high compressive strength and a very high flexural strength. It is widely recognized throughout the country for its durability and decorative white veins, and is the most frequently used natural stone in Slovenia today. It is mainly used as paving and cladding material for residential buildings, churches, and other structures, as well as in public areas, where it adds special character to many of the larger towns and cities. Several important buildings, some of which have been declared cultural monuments of national importance, are also decorated with this stone, including the Slovenian Parliament, the Republic Square business complex, and the Faculty of Law of the University of Ljubljana, all of which are located in Ljubljana. Since 1940, Pohorje granodiorite has also been widely used by sculptors in various monuments and fountains. RÉSUMÉLe granodiorite des montagnes de Pohorje (nord de la Slovénie) est considéré comme la meilleure pierre naturelle de Slovénie. Le granodiorite de Pohorje est une roche ignée grise, calco-alcaline du Miocène (18,7 Ma) qui se distingue par la présence d’épais filons de pegmatites d’aplite blanche. Il se compose principalement de plagioclase, de quartz et de feldspath potassique, de biotite accessoire et d’une petite quantité d'amphibole. Elle est caractérisée par une densité élevée, un faible coefficient d’imbibition, et une porosité faible, de sorte qu'elle présente une haute résistance au gel et au sel, ainsi qu’une résistance élevée à la compression et une résistance très élevée à la flexion. Elle est très connue dans tout le pays pour sa durabilité et ses filons décoratifs blancs, et c’est la pierre naturelle la plus fréquemment utilisée en Slovénie de nos jours. Elle est principalement utilisée comme matériau de pavage et de revêtement pour les bâtiments résidentiels, les églises et autres constructions, ainsi que dans les espaces publics, où elle donne un caractère distinctif aux grands villages et aux villes. Plusieurs bâtiments importants, dont certains ont été déclarés monuments culturels d'importance nationale, sont également décorées avec cette pierre, y compris le Parlement slovène, le complexe d'affaires Place de la République, et la Faculté de droit de l'Université de Ljubljana, lesquels sont tous situés à Ljubljana. Depuis 1940, le granodiorite de Pohorje a aussi été beaucoup utilisé par les sculpteurs dans divers monuments et fontaines.Traduit par le Traducteur

The study deals with the characterisation of paint layers from the wall paintings that decorated two excavated Roman villae rusticae in Slovenia. The villa in Mosnje, located in the NW of Slovenia, was built in the 1st half of the 1st century AD and was in use until the end of the 2nd century AD, while the coastal villa in Skolarice, built in the second quarter of the 1st century AD, remained in use until the mid-5th century. Stratigraphy and painting techniques were studied using optical microscopy, with pigments identified via Raman microspectroscopy supported by FTIR microspectroscopy and SEM/EDS. The results of this analysis revealed that whereas the Skolarice wall paintings were mainly executed using the fresco technique and some areas with the secco technique, both techniques were identified equally in the Mosnje paintings. Red ochre, lime white and carbon black pigments were identified in both the Mosnje and Skolarice paintings, although the latter were also characterised by the use of yellow ochre and green earth.

The precise and accurate determination of sulphate levels in cement is of utmost importance due to the potential occurrence of internal sulphate attack in concrete, which affects the latter’s durability, and thus, also the safety of concrete constructions. The estimated measurement uncertainty provides a level of confidence in the experimental results, and enables the comparison of data, both between different laboratories and between different methods. This paper presents an alternative approach to the estimation of measurement uncertainty in the determination of sulphate in cement, based on the use of proficiency testing data. The calculations used in this procedure refer to the estimation of reproducibility within-laboratory component of the analysis of control samples, as well as of the bias component of sulphate content data for different types of Portland cement derived from several proficiency testing trials.

This study concerns the investigation of mortar layers and pigments of wall paintings from the Roman town of Emona (Ljubljana, Slovenia). Fragments of wall paintings consist of up to three preserved mortar layers. The mineralogical–petrographic compositions of the mortars were determined by means of optical microscopy and FT–IR spectroscopy. The investigated samples were divided into several groups based on similar thicknesses of the mortar layer, the binder colour and the composition of an aggregate. Furthermore, the results of mercury intrusion porosimetry showed that mortar layers consisting of carbonate grains exhibited lower porosity with respect to layers with mainly silicate grains, which is attributed to the angular shapes of carbonate aggregate. This is in accordance with the drilling resistance measurement system test (DRMS), confirming that layers with angular carbonate grains are harder than those with addition of rounded silicate ones, due to the good packing effect. The wall paintings were mainly executed using the fresco technique, while for some details secco was used. The identified pigments were red and yellow ochre, green earth, Egyptian blue, carbon black and lime white; all of them belonged to the so‐called austere pigment, which is quite common in Roman wall paintings.

This study deals with the macroscopic and microfacies characterisation of Roman stone artefacts excavated in 2006 from a Roman villa rustica near Mošnje (NW Slovenia) with the aim of defiing their provenance. A total of 28 representative fids (querns, mortars, whetstones, tooled and rounded stones, a fragment of stone slab, mosaic tesserae and two architectural elements - one with a relief) made of clastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks were examined. Comparison was made with rock samples taken from quarries and gravel bars close to the archaeological site, as well as from larger distance to the site. The majority of artefact sampled is composed of Upper Palaeozoic quartz sandstones, which are found as pebbles in gravel bars close to the archaeological site; while 2 samples were from Quaternary coarse grained clastic rocks which can be found in local glacio-flvial sediments. Other fids were made of four different Mesozoic shallow-water limestones which outcrop in different areas of Central and SW Slovenia. The nearest Lower Jurassic biopelmicritic limestones are found at the western periphery of Ljubljana in Podutik. Cretaceous miliolid limestones and biocalcarenitic limestones with rudists are common in the successions of the Dinaric Carbonate Platform in SW Slovenia (for example, on the Trieste-Komen Plateau), NE Italy and SW Croatia. This indicates that the limestones for architectural elements, stone mortars and tesserae were brought to Mošnje from distant locations. Smaller stone tools are likely to have been made at the location of the archaeological site from material gathered locally, mostly pebbles from clastic rocks, which were accessible and suitable for tooling.

The implementation of repair works on concrete structures is on the increase since many existing concrete buildings have been exposed for long periods of time to different climates, as well as to other severe conditions, and have consequently deteriorated. Repair mortars need to fulfil the requirements of the EN 1504 series before being used in practice. Different mixtures, based on three different precursors (fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and metakaolin) and processed by alkali activated technology, have been assessed with regard to their suitability for the repair of concrete. Whereas the slag-based repair mortar delaminated from the substrate, and was thus unsuitable for its intended use, the other two mortars which were based on the precursors fly ash and metakaolin exhibited good mechanical properties and good adhesion. The bond strength of the metakaolin and fly ash mortars ranged from 1.8 to 2.3 N/mm(2), and thus met these criteria for both structural and non-structural repair mortars. The capillary absorption of all three mixtures was too high to fulfil the criteria of EN 1504-3 for structural repair products, but the fly ash and metakaolin mixtures still have the potential to be used for non-structural repair works. The problem of efflorescence in all three mixtures was also assessed. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.