Virtual fencing presents a promising solution for grazing management, providing flexibility, individual monitoring, potential improvements in land management, and enhanced animal welfare. However, welfare issues related to electric stimuli and species-specific learning abilities need consideration. This study aimed to investigate if sheep could learn and be fenced by a fully automated virtual fencing system. Eight Norwegian White ewes with twin lambs, all naive to virtual fencing, were randomly selected at the beginning of September 2018. Fitted with Nofence virtual fence collars designed for goats, the ewes were subjected to daily behavioural observations over nine days. The Nofence technology is a fully automated system that uses GPS coordinates, that trigger an audio cue when an animal crosses the boundary. If the animal does not turn, it receives an electric stimulus. The study was divided into three periods: an adaptation period (2 days), period 1 (5 days), where the first virtual boundary was introduced on day 1, and period 2 (4 days) when a second boundary was introduced. Additionally, the ewes wore heart rate monitors for at least one hour daily. Throughout the study, the ewes received a total of 218 audio cues and 38 electric stimuli, indicating an approximate individual mean of 27 audio cues and 5 electric stimuli received The number of audio cues and electric stimuli significantly decreased over days in both experimental periods. In period 2, the number of audio cues was significantly higher compared to period 1, while the success ratio in avoiding electric stimuli remained stable across days. The experimental period significantly influenced the frequency of standing/walking behaviour, being more common in the adaptation period compared to periods 1 and 2. However, the period did not have a significant effect on the percentages of lying or grazing behaviour. During heart rate monitoring, four ewes received one electric stimulus each, resulting in an immediate heart rate increase that returned to baseline within minutes. The present study demonstrates that sheep wearing a fully automated system quickly learned to associate audio cues with electric stimuli. The ability to generalise experiences from one virtual boundary to another emphasises their learning ability. Minor changes in activity were likely influenced by factors other than the virtual fencing system. The short-lasting increase in heart rate as a response to electric stimuli suggests a temporary stress reaction. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the potential of virtual fencing for sheep management.

Virtual fencing technology has been developed over the last decades with the goal of giving farmers a flexible fence solution especially for remote rangeland. The latest technology is based on the use of Global Positioning System (GPS), mobile phone networks and internet applications. During the autumn of 2017 a field study was performed on eight commercial goat farms in Norway by using the Nofence virtual fencing technology. The main aim of the study was to describe the ability of goats to adapt to virtual fencing with three different sets of conditions. The first condition consisted of six groups with a total of 53 goats naïve to virtual fencing, that were introduced to and enclosed by a virtual fence. The second consisted of ten groups with a total of 92 goats already accustomed to virtual fencing being held on their regular pasture enclosed by a virtual fence. The third condition consisted of four groups with a total of 45 goats accustomed to virtual fencing that were moved to or given new rangeland areas enclosed by a virtual fence. All sets of conditions lasted for five days, and the number of audio cues and electric stimuli were automatically registered for all individual animals. A success ratio was calculated based on these measures. All variables were analyzed using a Generalized Linear Mixed Model with either a Poisson or Binomial distribution. The number of escapes were also registered. For the naïve goats, the mean number of audio cues and electric stimuli per goat were reduced from day one to day five, while the success ratio increased. On day one, 22 goats escaped whereas on day four and five no goats escaped. For the accustomed goats, the success ratio was significantly higher than that for the naïve goats, but not different from accustomed and moved. The total number of escapes in this condition was 7. For accustomed and moved, the success ratio was similar to the accustomed goats, but there was large variation across days, also in the number of audio cues. Escapes were only registered in one of the groups. We concluded that goats could adapt to and be confined by virtual fencing in commercial herds, but there were large individual variations as well as variation between groups regarding the number of audio cues and electric stimuli received.