Context Many carnivores are attracted to rugged terrain, rocky areas, and conspicuous relief features. However, most of the previous research is limited to general topographical habitat characteristics and rarely consider the effects of microhabitat characteristics. Objectives We used the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) as a model species to investigate the effects of microhabitat characteristics and human infrastructure on habitat selection. We also tested whether there is evidence for a functional response in habitat selection across a large gradient of habitat availability. Methods We developed a new approach for detecting rocky outcrops from airborne LiDAR data. In combination with other remote sensing techniques and GPS-telemetry data, we assessed lynx habitat selection and functional responses across two geologically contrasting areas in Europe. Results We detected > 1 million rocky outcrops and confirmed their strong selection by lynx. Lynx also selected steep, rugged, and rocky areas, especially for day-resting sites. Furthermore, lynx avoided paths during the day but selected them and other linear anthropogenic infrastructure during the night, indicating the behaviour-specific impact of human infrastructure. We also observed a functional response in the selection of rocky and rugged areas, as lynx' selection of such habitats increased with their lower availability. This highlights the importance of preserving such terrains, especially when they are rare in a landscape. Conclusions Our results highlight the importance of incorporating remote sensing techniques and data on microhabitat features in animal habitat selection research. We also recommend caution when developing new infrastructure for human recreation or promoting its use near geomorphological features and in rugged terrain.

The publication Digitalne vezi (‘Digital Connections’) is the 17th book in the series ‘GIS v Sloveniji’ [GIS in Slovenia]. Its aim is to present diverse findings of researchers from the world of geographic information systems in Slovenia from recent years. Powerful data acquisition sensors and geoinformation tools enable research of various processes and phenomena, and a number of web-based applications are being developed to display spatial information. The book presents the results of projects and research findings in fields such as geomorphology, environmental protection, geography, geodesy, forestry, transport, tourism, remote sensing, agriculture and others. Readers will find in the book new possibilities for the use of geographic information systems and can find out about interesting research results in a wide range of fields.

Geodiversity, encompassing various geophysical elements, can have an important impact on species distribution and affect animal behaviour patterns. Although many wild felids are attracted to rugged terrain and conspicuous relief features, most previous research was limited to general topographical characteristics (e.g., slope or terrain ruggedness) and rarely considered the effects of specific microhabitat characteristics. This gap is primarily due to the limited availability of high-resolution digital terrain models (DTMs) and relief features data at larger scales. However, LiDAR DTMs can be used in combination with various automatic methods to detect relief features, enabling non-contact and accurate mapping of large, remote and densely-forested areas. Here, we investigated the selection patterns of various karstic relief features, as well as topographic, anthropogenic and vegetation characteristics, by two sympatric felids, the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), in the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia. We used LiDAR DTM to calculate topographic characteristics and detect karst relief features based on automatic methods. We compared the selection of these features between the GPS-collared lynx and wildcats under a use-availability approach. We also investigated the differences in the selection of these features by lynx based on their origin and experience (remnant vs. translocated and naive vs. experienced, respectively). We observed significant impact of relief features on space use by both felids and detected distinct selection patterns between the two species. Lynx selected rugged terrain and proximity of caves, cliffs, karst depressions, ridges, small rocky outcrops, and roads, but avoided human settlements and forest edges. Wildcats selected areas with lower surface slope, closer to main roads, forest edges, caves and ridges, but avoided cliffs, forest roads and human settlements. We observed stronger selection/avoidance patterns among the translocated compared to the remnant lynx, while the differences in experience levels were less important. Our study demonstrates the potential of integrating remote sensing techniques and information on geodiversity into the study of animal spatial ecology. Furthermore, our results indicate that specific relief features provide important abiotic microhabitats for felids and may influence habitat segregation between sympatric species. Our findings provide further evidence for the importance of geodiversity conservation and the need to incorporate abiotic microhabitat features in wildlife habitat selection studies.

Karst is a geomorphological system that covers almost 50% of the area of Slovenia and is mainly characterised by circular concave and convex landforms such as conical hills, dolines, uvalas and poljes. These large landforms can be easily detected with a number of already developed (semi-)automatic detection methods. In addition to these large landforms, the karst surface is dissected by smaller scale features consisting mainly of numerous rocks of different shapes and sizes. Due to the different lithology that makes up the Slovenian karst (e.g., limestone, dolomite), rocky outcrops have different morphographic and morphometric characteristics due to the different dynamics of the mechanical weathering of the bedrock. The variety in shapes and sizes of rocky outcrops makes their detection by automatic or semi-automatic methods difficult. In our study area in the Dinaric Karst in Slovenia, they reach heights of up to several metres and lengths of about 10 metres.Field mapping or digitizing such landforms would be time-consuming, labour-intensive, and costly. The combination of high-resolution LiDAR-derived DEMs (digital elevation models) and (semi-)automatic landform detection and delineation methods in GIS environments enables remote and low-cost mapping, which has an outstanding potential for large-scale spatial analysis and mapping in remote, forested, and difficult-to-access areas such as the Dinaric Karst.The main objective of this study was to develop an approach for quantitative identification and detection of rocky outcrops. The approach is based on spatial analysis of high-resolution (1 m × 1 m) LiDAR DEM and field analysis of outcrop morphography and morphometry. The study was conducted in the Dinaric Karst area in Slovenia, which consists mainly of Cretaceous and Jurassic limestones and dolomites. First, we calculated the values of TPI (Topographic Position Index) to identify all convex shapes (i.e., ridges) within a search radius of 10 m around each cell. Slope was used as an additional criterion for defining rocky outcrops. Based on field measurements, we found that bedrock in areas with limestone (30°) outcrop at a lower surface slope than in areas with dolomite (50°).The study has shown that the different spatial distribution, shape and size of the rocky outcrops are related to the geological structure. In the limestones they are much denser and more numerous than in the dolomites. In average, the dimensions of the outcrops are also much larger. This is due to the porosity of the dolomites, which causes greater mechanical weathering. We have also found that rocky outcrops often occur on certain landforms, e.g. on the slopes of dolines and other karst depressions or fluviokarst valleys.Airborne LiDAR DEMs can be a useful source of information for detecting and studying the spatial patterns and morphometric settings of rocky outcrops. The number of landforms detected indicates that, in addition to dolines, rocky outcrops are one of the most common landforms in the Dinaric Karst.Key words: Rocky outcrops, karst landform, GIS, LiDAR, (semi-)automatic methods, geomorphology, Dinaric mountains

<p>Dolines are concave circular karst landforms that are clearly presented by topography data (topographic maps), especially on high-resolution LiDAR digital terrain models (DTM). In the karst landscape, man has reshaped natural dolines through centuries by collecting rocks and soil to increase the flat area of tillable (cultivated) land at the bottom of the doline. By this human-induced process, the natural doline was reshaped into a cultivated doline. Cultivated dolines have a rich historical legacy of use for local agricultural production, high geomorphological value for geodiversity and present an important habitat supporting biodiversity. They are an element of agro-karstic landscape (<em>paysage agro-karstiques</em>) and are distinctive of Mediterranean karst landscapes like Dinaric karst, Central massive, Apulia etc. Most of the cultivated dolines have been recently abandoned, and covered by forest, thus the human impact is not evident anymore so clearly.</p><p>In most studies on natural characteristics and processes in dolines, there is no distinct separation between natural and cultivated dolines and no consideration of past agricultural land use. Thus, the main goal of this study/presentation is to provide a geoinformatics methodology to separate cultivated dolines from natural dolines based on differences in micro-topography by using recent very high-resolution LiDAR topography data and historical cadastral maps (19<sup>th</sup> century).</p><p>Using visualized LiDAR DTM the most evident morphometric differences between the natural and cultivated doline landforms were recognized. Cultivated dolines were characterized by (1) a circular concave landform with a flat bottom (2) the presence of anthropogenic elements, such as circular stonewalls at the upper doline edge, which provides evidence of stone-removal from the doline slopes (smooth surface). Additionally, in the 19th-century cadastral maps, only individual dolines with important land use were marked as special lots. Given the rural character of the landscape during that time, the only land use recorded in the concentric lots of the dolines was agricultural use (arable fields, gardens, meadows, and pastures). As a result, the number, location and surface coverage of cultivated dolines were precisely defined for classical karst regions in SW Slovenia. Based on Lidar data, bowl-shaped cultivated dolines with flat bottoms were separated from non-cultivated funnel-shaped dolines.</p><p> </p>

The book Preteklost in prihodnost ('The past and the future') is the sixteenth volume in the GIS v Sloveniji (GIS in Slovenia) book series and commemorates its 30th anniversary. The goal of the volume is to present the wide variety of research findings on geographical information systems in Slovenia in recent years. Powerful geoinformatic tools and precise data facilitate research on processes and phenomena, and their modelling. The volume presents project outputs and research results in areas such as geology, geomorphology, hydrology, pedology, agriculture, natural disasters, environmental protection, geography, surveying, archaeology, transport, telecommunication infrastructure, tourism, cultural heritage, education, cartography, geographical names, remote sensing, and others. Readers discover new features regarding the applicability of geographical information systems and learn about interesting research findings in many areas.

Geographic information systems in Slovenia between 1992 and 2022The chapter commemorates the 30 th anniversary of the GIS v Sloveniji (GIS in Slovenia) book series and depicts the evolution of geographic information systems in Slovenia from 1992 to 2022, as indicated by the chapters in these books.It is a biennial publication of monographs published in even years.It represents a cross-section of two years of research, technical, and educational activities in Slovenia related to the development and use of geographic information systems.

The paper introduces the transboundary approach for landscape geointerpretation using a karst landscape (NW Dinaric Karst) as an example. It proposes geointerpretation that focuses on attractive geoheritage themes that are unique to a karst landscape, such as “duality” of the landscape (surface and underground landscape), geodiversity and geohistory of explorations. Four representative karst landscape types are presented in two neighbouring countries, Slovenia (SI) and Croatia (HR): low karst (Karst Plateau/SI), contact karst (UNESCO site Škocjan Caves/ SI), high alpine glacial karst (Gorski Kotar/HR) and coastal karst (Island of Krk/HR). The transboundary geointerpretation approach is based on an interpretive planning process, which was conducted through participatory workshops with local people and stakeholders and resulted in one interpretive master plan and four permanent exhibition plans. The key phenomena and themes for permanent exhibition plans were identified and used as the basis for the establishment of off-site karst interpretive centres and on-site polygons. The karst heritage was interpreted by using Freeman Tilden’s basic principles of interpretation. The presented approach and the interpretive infrastructure provide a good basis for further geoconservation projects, as well as for geopark designation. Its transferability and further geotourism applications are discussed.

Automatic methods for detecting and delineating relief features allow remote and low-cost mapping, which has an outstanding potential for large-scale spatial analysis and calculation of morphometric characteristics of karst depressions in remote, forested and hard to cross areas. Besides geomorphology, detection methods can be also useful for wildlife ecology and similar research. We applied a filled-DTM (digital terrain model) method using LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data to automatically detect dolines and other karst depressions in a rugged terrain of the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia. For the dolines we calculated basic morphometric and morphological characteristics such as surface area, diameter, depth, slope, ruggedness and others. To demonstrate its applicability for wildlife research, we applied it 1) in a preliminary study (Menišija plateau and Logatec-Begunje plain test area, NW Dinaric Mountains) in combination with GPS-telemetry data to assess the selection of these features by the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and 2) to analyse what characteristic are typical for those dolines where lynx killed ungulates (whole Dinaric Mountains of Slovenia). In preliminary study we found that lynx selected for habitats in the vicinity of karst depressions, among which they preferentially used larger karst depressions. Lynx also regularly killed ungulate prey near these features. For whole Dinaric Mountains 202 kill sites were identified, among which 32.2% (n=65) were located inside dolines or in their close vicinity. Analysing the characteristics of those dolines where lynx kill sites were identified, we found that also these dolines were larger than mean and median surface area, depth, and diameter of all dolines in the Dinaric Mountains. The median with standard error of surface area of the dolines where the lynx caught its prey is 1,141.4 ± 703.2 m2, has diameter of 38.8 ± 11.3 m, and is 5.2 ± 1.9 m deep. The maximum slope in these dolines ranges from 20.4 to 56.3°, which could indicate the formation of smaller walls, rocky outcrops and karren fields. Morphometric and morphological characteristics of dolines could influence success of lynx hunting. Habitat selection for karst depressions and high proportion of killed ungulate inside or in close vicinity of dolines illustrate that karstic features could play an important role in the ecology of lynx Key words: Karst depressions, GIS, LiDAR, geomorphology, Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), kill sites, microhabitat characteristics, Dinaric mountains, telemetry, spatial ecology

Automatic methods for detecting and delineating relief features allow remote and low-cost mapping, which has an outstanding potential for wildlife ecology and similar research. We applied a filled-DEM (digital elevation model) method using LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data to automatically detect dolines and other karst depressions in a rugged terrain of the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia. Using this approach, we detected 9711 karst depressions in a 137 km(2) study area and provided their basic morphometric characteristics, such as perimeter length, area, diameter, depth, and slope. We performed visual validation based on shaded relief, which indicated 83.5% accordance in detecting depressions. Although the method has some drawbacks, it proved suitable for detection, general spatial analysis, and calculation of morphometric characteristics of depressions over a large scale in remote and forested areas. To demonstrate its applicability for wildlife research, we applied it in a preliminary study in combination with GPS-telemetry data to assess the selection of these features by two wild felids, the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and the European wildcat (Felis silvestris). Both species selected for vicinity of karst depressions, among which they selected for larger karst depressions. Lynx also regularly killed ungulate prey near these features, as we found more than half of lynx prey remains inside or in close vicinity of karst depressions. These results illustrate that karstic features could play an important role in the ecology of wild felids and warrant further research, which could be considerably assisted with the use of remote detection of relief features.

The book Preteklost in prihodnost ('The past and the future') is the sixteenth volume in the GIS v Sloveniji (GIS in Slovenia) book series and commemorates its 30th anniversary. The goal of the volume is to present the wide variety of research findings on geographical information systems in Slovenia in recent years. Powerful geoinformatic tools and precise data facilitate research on processes and phenomena, and their modelling. The volume presents project outputs and research results in areas such as geology, geomorphology, hydrology, pedology, agriculture, natural disasters, environmental protection, geography, surveying, archaeology, transport, telecommunication infrastructure, tourism, cultural heritage, education, cartography, geographical names, remote sensing, and others. Readers discover new features regarding the applicability of geographical information systems and learn about interesting research findings in many areas.

Geoscience has been devoting increased attention to understanding the complex pathways and flows of material, energy, and the multidimensional coupling between various geological systems. This understanding includes the “concept of connectivity”, which provides an overall framework better to investigate hydrological systems. So far, the concept has largely been used for fluvial geomorphic systems, whereas we intend to use it within the karst system. In relation to the concept of connectivity between the karst surface and subsurface, hydrological, sediment, and geochemical connectivities are the most relevant from the perspective of geoscience and to measuring human impacts through a long time span. Our main interest is to study the direct flow between enclosed karst depressions (solution dolines) and near-surface caves (50 m below the surface) that are prone to human influence. The doline-cave coupling zone represents the upper part of a karst aquifer for which specific connectivity characteristics between dolines and near-surface caves can be identified. Polina peč Cave (NW Dinaric Karst) was selected as a case study cave. We used geoinformatic methods (three-dimensional (3D) laser scanning) and available data (Registry of maps, Lidar DEM 1x1m, optical remote sensing data), geomorphometric analyse, geological mapping and surveying. With precise georeferencing (using the GNSS system), we placed the 3D point cloud of the cave in a geographical coordinate system, compared 3D cave map with the surface map (using existing national aero-laser scanning data – Lidar DEM 1x1m), and selected dolines that are most directly connected to cave. The results were controlled and further improved by geophysical methods (electrical resistivity tomography/ERT).

In this study, the objects of research were circular and concave karstic depressions, called sinkholes or dolines. All these negative topographic anomalies were previously recognized as safe havens for cool-adapted species on karstic plateaus. However, the high geodiversity of doline landforms on karst plateaus does not ensure that all dolines are really safe havens that should be considered for conservation status. We propose the use of indicator species to identify different dolines' “sections” and their overall types to identify dolines with high conservation value for cool-adapted species. We aimed to divide dolines into landform-vegetation units (LVU) according to basic geomorphic characteristics and indicator plant species.We carried out intensive sampling of vegetation plots (n = 286) across 10 dolines of different geomorphology ranging from 20 m to 100 m in diameter and from 2 m to 20 m in depth. Each doline was classified into a maximum of four LVUs: bottom, lower slope, upper slope and top. Vascular plants were used as a proxy for ecosystem biodiversity and indicator of ecological conditions. The diversity of vascular plant communities was sampled along N–S transects from one side of the doline over the bottom to the other side. Geodiversity parameters of individual dolines were calculated using a high-resolution digital elevation model (LiDAR / Light Detection And Ranging) and their significance was established by permutation test in CCA (Canonical Correlation Analysis). The floristic gradient was established by the first axis of PCoA (Principal Coordinates Analysis) and shows the species turn-over along the trajectory. Discrete plant communities were determined by TWINSPAN (Two-Way Indicator Species ANnalysis) classification. Based on this analysis, transects were disintegrated into four LVUs. Communities within LVUs were compared by Ellenberg indicator values and according to habitat preference of species. The indicator (also termed diagnostic) plant species were calculated by fidelity measure and related to ecological conditions along transects.We found that all four LVUs appear only in dolines that are at least 13.5 m deep and those can serve as a good safe haven for cool-adapted species in foreseen climatic change. We also confirmed that doline depth is the most important factors influencing the plant community composition. The results can be directly transformed to other karst regions (karst plateaus) with the same zonal vegetation, but calibration is needed in case of their application in other areas.

Karst landscapes have an abundance of enclosed depressions. Many studies have detected depressions and have calculated geomorphometric characteristics with computer techniques. These outcomes are somewhat determined by the methods and data used. We aim to highlight the applicability of high-resolution relief laser scanning data in geomorphological studies of karst depressions. We set two goals: geomorphometrically to characterize depressions in different karst plateaus and to examine the influence of data preprocessing and detection methods on the results. The study was performed in three areas of the Slovene Dinaric Karst using the following steps: preprocessing digital elevation models (DEMs), enclosed depression detection, calculating geomorphometric characteristics, and comparing the characteristics of selected areas. We discovered that different combinations of methods influenced the number and geomorphometric characteristics of depressions. The range of detected depressions in the three areas were 442–491, 364–403, and 366–504, and the share of the depressions’ area confirmed with all the approaches was 23%, 29%, and 47%, which resulted in different geomorphometric properties. Comparisons between the study areas were also influenced by the methods, which was confirmed by the Mann–Whitney test. We concluded that preprocessing of high-resolution relief data and the detection methods in karst environments significantly impact analyses and must be taken into account when interpreting geomorphometric results.

Namen prispevka je na varovanem območju Natura 2000 ovrednotiti geodiverziteto in podati smernice za vključitev v obstoječi sistem naravovarstva. Kot območje preučevanja je bilo izbrano porečje Dragonje. Na podlagi kartografskega gradiva in terenskega dela smo izdelali morfografski zemljevid območja, s pomočjo literature pa prilagodili metodo izračuna indeksa geodiverzitete v geografskih informacijskih sistemih. Končni rezultat je zemljevid indeksa geodiverzitete, na podlagi katerega smo določili vroče točke geodiverzitete. // The importance of protection of geodiversity hotspots for the conservation of biodiversity in the Natura 2000 area in the Dragonja river valleyThe purpose of the article is to evaluate geodiversity in Natura 2000 protected area and to provide guidelines for inclusion in the existing nature protection system. The Dragonja River basin (SW Slovenia) was selected as a study area. Based on cartographic material and field work we made a morphographic map of the area, and based on the literature we adjusted the method of calculating the geodiversity index in geographic information systems. The final result is a map of the geodiversity index, on the basis of which geodiversity hotspots were determined.