Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly aggressive type of brain cancer known for its rapid progression and treatment resistance, presenting significant challenges for effective management. This article examines the promising potential of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) as a groundbreaking platform for both the treatment and diagnosis of this formidable disease. MSNs boast several advantageous properties, including a large surface area, customizable pore sizes, and excellent biocompatibility. These characteristics enable efficient encapsulation of therapeutic agents, controlled release, and targeted delivery directly to GBM cells. One of the key advantages of MSNs is their ability to be functionalized with specific targeting ligands, which enhances their specificity toward tumor cells, facilitates navigation through the blood–brain barrier (BBB), and helps address the issues of tumor heterogeneity and drug resistance. When integrated with multimodal therapies, such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and photodynamic therapy, MSNs can create synergistic effects that improve therapeutic outcomes while reducing adverse off-target effects. Additionally, MSNs are poised to enhance diagnostic capabilities, improving imaging techniques for the accurate detection and monitoring of GBM. This review consolidates recent advancements in MSN-based approaches, emphasizing their therapeutic and diagnostic potential while also discussing toxicity concerns and outlining future pathways for clinical application to ultimately enhance patient outcomes.

Acne vulgaris is a chronic inflammatory condition of the pilosebaceous unit resulting from follicular hyperkeratinization, increased sebum production, overgrowth of Cutibacterium acnes, and immune activation, with subsequent activation of Toll-like receptor signalling and increased expression of IL-1β, IL-8, and matrix metalloproteinases, leading to scarring and hyperpigmentation. Conventional treatments such as topical retinoids, benzoyl peroxide, antibiotics, oral isotretinoin, and hormonal therapies are often associated with limited efficacy, slow response, irritation, photosensitivity, and poor tolerability, prompting the search for non-antibiotic strategies that preserve the microbiome. This review evaluates metal oxide nanoparticles as multifunctional agents with acne-targeted, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and photocatalytic activities suitable for the follicular microenvironment. The emphasis is placed on zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, copper oxide, iron oxide, magnesium oxide, cerium oxide, aluminium oxide and manganese oxide nanoparticles. The review further examines synthesis methods (physical, wet-chemical, and green plant/microbial synthesis), formulation platforms (hydrogels/nanogels, electrospun fibers, lipid carriers, microneedles, and near-infrared (NIR)-responsive nanomotors), as well as safety and regulatory aspects. Available evidence suggests that primary particle size (typically 20-70 nm), hydrodynamic aggregation (200-700 nm for follicular depots), zeta potential (-10 to -30 mV), and surface coatings (e.g., hyaluronic acid, polysaccharides, and polyethylene glycol (PEG)) significantly influence dermal fate. Metal oxide nanoparticles represent promising adjuvants and potential alternatives for the treatment of mild-to-moderate acne vulgaris and maintenance therapy, provided they are synthesized using standardized protocols, formulated through microbiome-friendly approaches, toxicologically evaluated using harmonized assessment frameworks, and validated through rigorous, adequately powered clinical trials.

Diabetic wounds stand as one of the most severe conditions of diabetes, which can be transformed into chronic, non-healing ulcers and may increase the risk of limb amputation. These complications can be prevented using a novel targeted treatment approach. In recent years, nanoformulation has emerged as a promising technique for addressing such complications. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have attracted substantial interest due to their biocompatibility, stability, and ability to load a wide range of therapeutic agents. This review summarizes synthesis strategies and recent advancements in SLNs for the treatment of diabetic wounds. The lipid matrix of the SLNs is essential for their biocompatibility and for the encapsulation of a wide range of bioactive agents, such as growth factors. The SLNs also possess a high zeta potential and interfacial charge, which improve their stability in biological fluids and influence their interactions with the wound environment. We have also highlighted the different methods for synthesizing SLNs, including microemulsion methods, supercritical fluid methods, spray drying, etc., depending on the route of administration. The SLNs can be administered through the topical, oral, and systemic routes. The topical application of bioactive compounds loaded into SLNs helps reduce microbial load and oxidative stress at the diabetic wound site. However, oral and systemic delivery help manage oxidative stress associated with diabetes, and at the wound site, they provide a dual approach for managing the diabetic wound. Overall, SLNs represent a promising platform for the effective treatment of diabetic wounds, offering multifunctional strategies to overcome current therapeutic limitations.

Abstract Our aim was to develop an accurate, precise, and reliable RP-HPLC method for estimating ferrous fumarate and ascorbic acid in pro-liposomes. The aim was to make the analytical method simple, environmentally friendly, and accurate. To measure ferrous fumarate (FF) and ascorbic acid (AA), an isocratic method was used in an HPLC, with 220 and 245 nm detection, using phosphate buffer (pH 3.0) and methanol (95:5). It was found that AA and FF were retained for 6.4 and 8.3 min, respectively. A linear relationship was observed between 0.1 and 50 μg/mL for both ferrous fumarate (r2 = 0.994) and ascorbic acid (r2 = 0.999). The resolution between the two peaks ≥2, tailing factor (TF) ≤2, and theoretical plate count >2000 were evaluated and recorded as system suitability parameters. The LOD and LOQ for FF were calculated to be 0.52 and 1.58 μg/mL, respectively, whereas the same for AA were calculated to be 0.17 and 0.53 μg/mL, respectively. The validation method was tested under various conditions, including flow rate, injection volume, column temperature, and mobile phase ratio. Additionally, the optimized method was successfully used to estimate the entrapment efficiency for FF and AA in the developed pro-liposomes, which were found to be 92 and 65%, respectively.

Silybin, a potent hepatoprotective flavonolignan, exhibits poor aqueous solubility, low intestinal permeability, and extensive first-pass metabolism, resulting in limited oral bioavailability. The present study aimed to develop silybin-loaded deoxycholic acid-modified chitosan-lecithin nanoparticles (DCS-LC NPs) as an oral nanocarrier system to enhance intestinal absorption and hepatoprotective efficacy. Amphiphilic deoxycholic acid-grafted chitosan was synthesized and nanoparticles were prepared by ionic gelation technique followed by optimization using Box-Behnken Design. The optimized DCS-LC NPs exhibited nanosized particle distribution, high entrapment efficiency, favourable zeta potential, sustained pH-responsive drug release, and good colloidal stability. Solid-state characterization confirmed successful drug encapsulation within the lipid-polymer matrix. The nanoparticles also demonstrated excellent hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility in haemolysis and MTT assays. Ex vivo permeability studies showed significantly enhanced intestinal permeation compared with pure silybin and unmodified chitosan nanoparticles. Pharmacokinetic studies revealed markedly improved systemic exposure with approximately 2.9-fold enhancement in Cmax and > 11-fold increase in AUC. Moreover, in a CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity model, DCS-LC NPs significantly improved hepatoprotective activity by restoring hepatic biochemical markers and reducing liver injury. Overall, the developed nanoparticulate system represents a promising oral delivery platform for improving the bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of silybin.

A novel metoprolol succinate tablet-in-tablet-in-tablet system was developed using hot-melt granulation combined with twin-screw continuous processing to provide an accurate 24-h sustained release. Tablet-in-tablet-in-tablet system was optimized using Quality by Design, considering key formulation and process parameters such as polymer composition, kneading temperature, screw speed, and feed rate to ensure reproducibility and scalability. The three-layer architecture was tailored to release the drug in a timed sequence, allowing the outer, middle, and core compartments to contribute to a gradual and predictable release profile that closely approached zero-order kinetics. Physicochemical characterization confirmed the stability of metoprolol succinate within the polymeric matrix. Additionally, in vivo studies in rats supported the sustained release behaviour, while accelerated stability testing indicated retention of formulation integrity and dissolution performance for three months. This work describes the development and evaluation of a scalable and robust platform for controlled-release oral dosage forms which could serve as a practical alternative to conventional single-layer or pellet-based systems.

Long-acting injectables (LAIs) have transformed drug delivery by enabling sustained and controlled release of therapeutics, which can improve treatment efficacy, patient adherence, and dosing convenience. However, traditional depot systems such as polymeric microspheres and oil-based formulations still face several limitations like burst release, complicated manufacturing procedures, and stability concerns, particularly when delivering peptides and biologics. Existing reviews often focus on individual material classes or isolated formulation approaches, leaving a fragmented understanding of the broader field. This review aims to bridge that gap by bringing together recent advances in formulation design with developments in predictive modelling, advanced analytical characterization, and translational considerations for complex LAI systems. We highlight recent innovations in molecular and polymer engineering, in situ depot systems, and real-time depot monitoring, emphasizing how these advances can overcome conventional challenges and support clinical translation. By linking formulation science with translational perspectives, this review offers an integrated overview and outlines future directions for the development of safer and more effective long-acting therapeutic platforms.

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) is a prevalent non-melanoma skin cancer. Topical chemotherapy offers a non-invasive alternative to surgical treatments, yet the therapeutic efficacy of conventional agents like 5-fluorouracil is hindered by poor skin permeability and systemic side effects. In this study, we developed a gemini-surfactant-stabilized cubosomal gel (OF12-GEL) for enhanced topical delivery of 5-fluorouracil. The optimized cubosomes (OF12) exhibited a particle size of 134.4 nm, PDI 0.23, zeta potential +76.1 mV, and 51.3% entrapment efficiency. OF12-GEL achieved 41% release at 24 h and increased skin deposition to 323.7 μg/cm2, nearly 3-fold higher than free 5-FU (114.1 μg/cm2). In A431 cells, OF12 showed a lower IC₅₀ (0.77 μg/mL) than free 5-FU (1.15 μg/mL) and enhanced cellular uptake. In vivo, OF12-GEL significantly suppressed tumor growth in both DMBA-induced SCC rats and A431 xenograft mice, reducing tumor volume by and improving survival to 60%, and markedly downregulating BCL-2, Ki67, TNF-α, and ABCB1. OF12-GEL was non-irritant (PII = 0.33). These findings demonstrate a potent, safe, and targeted nanocarrier-based topical therapy for cSCC.

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a type of breast cancer that lacks the estrogen, progesterone, and HER2 receptors, and is more aggressive with a poor prognosis, and is associated with a high incidence of early distant recurrence within the first 3-5 years after diagnosis. MUC1 is a transmembrane mucin that is highly expressed and altered in glycosylation on TNBC cells and it leads to tumor progression and chemoresistance via its dysregulated signaling pathways, making it a potential therapeutic target and biomarker. The structure of MUC1, its physiological function and pathological role in TNBC is summarized in this review. We also review the different therapeutic modalities targeting MUC1, such as MUC1-specific aptamers, targeting with nanoparticles, peptide and small molecule inhibitors of MUC1-C and emerging biologics like antibody-drug conjugates and CAR-T-cell therapies and their preclinical effectiveness and early translation into TNBC. The challenges to overcome, such as issues with targeting specificity, tumor heterogeneity, antigen shedding, lack of good preclinical models, and other translational obstacles, are critically examined, as is the regulatory landscape of MUC1-targeted nanotherapeutics, including key FDA/EMA considerations for bringing MUC1-directed aptamer and nanoparticle platforms into clinical use, and biomarker-guided patient selection. This article summarizes the potential of MUC1 targeted strategies for better management of TNBC and the future directions to further enhance therapeutic efficacy, including rational combination therapy and multimodal imaging, while minimizing off-target effects, leveraging the integration of insights from gene expression profiling (TNBC-BLBC overlap), receptor biology (e.g. integrins, ICAM 1), and advances in nanomedicine and immuno oncology.

Introduction: Tacrolimus, a potent immunosuppressant, faces several limitations in transdermal delivery due to its higher molecular weight, pressing the need to encapsulate in niosomes. Various formulations (F1 to F9) were prepared using different non-ionic surfactants (Span 40, Span 60, and Brij 98) and varying cholesterol concentrations. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of surfactant type on particle size, polydispersity index, encapsulation efficiency, and in-vitro drug release. Methods: A total of nine niosomal formulations were developed using varying ratios of drug, surfactant, and cholesterol to optimize vesicle characteristics and drug delivery performance. Three nonionic surfactants, Span 40, Span 60, and Brij 98, were employed due to their distinct hydrophiliclipophilic balance (HLB) and vesicle-forming abilities. The formulations were prepared by the thin film hydration method, in drug: surfactant: cholesterol ratios of 1:1:0.2, 1:1:0.4, 1:1:0.6, 1:1.5:0.3, 1:2:0.4, 1:1:0.5, 1:1:0.75, 1:1:1, and a repeat of 1:1:0.2. Each formulation was evaluated for vesicle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI), entrapment efficiency, and cumulative drug release over 24 hours. Vesicle size and PDI were measured using dynamic light scattering, while zeta potential was assessed to determine colloidal stability. Entrapment efficiency was calculated by separating the unencapsulated drug via centrifugation, and drug release was studied using a dialysis diffusion method. Results: Results indicated that niosomes formulated with Brij 98 exhibited significantly smaller particle size and demonstrated the highest encapsulation efficiency due to its higher hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) values than Span 40 and Span 60. Among all formulations tested, F8 (comprising Drug: Brij 98: cholesterol in a molar ratio of 1:1:0.75) showed optimal characteristics with a vesicle size of 293 ± 0.75 nm, zeta potential of -21.6 ± 0.20 mV, PDI of 0.148 ± 0.006, encapsulation efficiency of 78.36 ± 0.66 %, and 71.2 ± 1.97 % drug release over 24 hours. Discussion: The study demonstrates that surfactant type significantly influences the characteristics of Tacrolimus-loaded niosomes. Brij 98, due to its higher HLB and flexible chains, produced smaller vesicles with superior entrapment and stability. In contrast, Span 40 and Span 60 formed larger, less efficient vesicles. These findings underscore the importance of surfactant selection in optimizing niosomal drug delivery. Conclusion: In conclusion the successful fabrication of niosomes and the achievement of desired size and uniformity crucially depend on the composition of niosomes, particularly the type of surfactant employed.

Dermatoses comprise a diverse group of skin disorders that compromise skin integrity, adversely affect patient health, and significantly reduce quality of life. These conditions are often associated with inflammation, infection, and disease progression, necessitating personalized therapeutic strategies and long-term management. Recent advances in molecular biology have facilitated the identification of biomarkers associated with disease onset, progression, and treatment response. These biomarkers provide valuable insights into disease pathophysiology and support early diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic monitoring. This review presents a comprehensive overview of gene expression profiles and biomarkers associated with various dermatological disorders. Understanding biomarker signatures enables the development of targeted and personalized therapeutic approaches tailored to individual patients, thereby improving treatment efficacy and clinical outcomes. In addition, this review highlights the role of nanocarrier-based systems in dermal drug delivery. Compared with conventional formulations, nanoparticle-based nanocarriers improve drug stability, enhance bioavailability, enable controlled drug release, minimize systemic toxicity, and reduce off-target drug delivery, making them promising platforms for the effective management of dermatological disorders.

The rising global burden of hepatitis underscores the urgent need for effective liver-targeted therapies. Silybin, a natural flavonolignan from Silybum marianum, is well recognized for its hepatoprotective and antiviral potential but suffers from poor oral bioavailability due to low solubility and rapid metabolism. To address this, we developed a novel surfactant-based nanocarrier system to unlock the therapeutic potential of orally administered silybin. The optimized formulation, comprising biocompatible lipids and cationic surfactants, produced stable nanovesicles (121 nm) with high encapsulation efficiency and biphasic drug release. Caco-2 cell transport studies demonstrated a 4.8-fold enhancement in permeability, while pharmacokinetic analysis revealed a 5.3-fold increase in oral bioavailability. In vivo, the nanoformulation significantly mitigated hepatotoxicity in D-galactosamine- induced hepatitis model, reducing serum ALT, AST, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, while restoring liver architecture. These outcomes were further supported by histological evidence of tissue regeneration. This work introduces a clinically viable nanodelivery strategy that overcomes key biopharmaceutical challenges of silybin, offering a promising translational platform for improving oral hepatitis therapy through enhanced absorption and hepatoprotective efficacy.

Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs), including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), and lung cancer, are major contributors to global morbidity and mortality. A central driver of their progression is oxidative stress, arising from excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) that disrupt redox balance, trigger pro-inflammatory cascades, and perpetuate tissue damage. Conventional pharmacological therapies, such as corticosteroids, bronchodilators, and immunosuppressants, provide symptomatic relief but ineffective in addressing oxidative stress and are often limited by adverse effects during long-term use. Plant-derived antioxidants like polyphenols (flavonoid and non-flavonoid) and algae derived antioxidants have demonstrated potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects through direct ROS scavenging, inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK signalling, and activation of Nrf2-dependent cytoprotective pathways. Confirmed in numerous in vitro and in vivo studies, these agents attenuate airway inflammation, oxidative injury, fibrosis, and even carcinogenesis in various respiratory models. Nevertheless, clinical use is still limited due to their poor solubility, instability and low bioavailability. Recent advances in nanotechnology-based delivery systems offer solutions by improving pharmacokinetics, protecting active compounds from degradation, and enabling targeted pulmonary delivery. Preclinical evaluations highlight the enhanced efficacy of nano-formulated phytochemicals in mitigating oxidative stress and inflammation compared with free compounds. This review critically examines the molecular mechanisms of oxidative stress in CRDs, summarises evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies on plant-derived antioxidants, and discusses emerging nano-formulation strategies that optimise their therapeutic potential. Integrating natural antioxidants with nanotechnology holds promise for developing innovative interventions that more effectively disrupt the oxidative–inflammatory cycle underlying CRDs.

Background Psoriasis is a persistent autoimmune dermatological ailment Thymoquinone (TQ), shows promising dermatopharmacological effects but suffers from poor skin penetration. To overcome this, TQ was encapsulated in proposomes containing propylene glycol as a permeation enhancer. These were incorporated into a film-forming gel (FFG) to enhance stability, provide sustained release, and form a protective barrier over the skin. Methods TQ-loaded proposomes (TQP) were prepared using a hot microemulsion technique and optimized via a central composite design. The formulation was evaluated for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, morphology, and entrapment efficiency. TQP-Opt was then added to an FFG base containing PVA, PVP, and Carbopol 940. The final TQP-Opt FFG was assessed for physical-chemical properties, ex vivo skin permeation, and in vivo antipsoriatic efficacy. Results The optimized TQP-Opt showed a particle size of 128.1 +/- 4.2 nm, PDI of 0.381 +/- 0.01, and zeta potential of -20.3 +/- 1.1 mV. Entrapment efficiency of TQ in TQP-Opt was 82.0 +/- 0.78 % and TQ content in TQP-Opt-FFG was 86.86 +/- 0.30 %. The TQP-Opt-FFG was homogeneous and viscous, with sustained drug release of 81.27 +/- 1.65 % of TQ over 24 h, following Higuchi's release kinetics. Ex vivo studies showed that the permeation of TQP-Opt-FFG, which is significantly higher than that of the TQ solution (p < 0.001). In vivo preclinical studies demonstrated superior therapeutic efficacy in reversing psoriatic symptoms compared to marketed formulations (p < 0.01) in the Imiquimod (IMQ) induced psoriasis model in mice. The formulation was non-irritant and remained unchanged for three successive months. Conclusion The TQP-loaded film-forming gel offers a promising, stable, and effective topical strategy for managing psoriasis, with enhanced skin penetration and sustained release.

This review strives to examine lead-induced neurotoxicity with emphasis on glial-astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes responses in the context of pervasive environmental pollution and cognitive deficits. It further emphasizes dysregulated neurotrophins and growth-factor signaling as key contributors to impaired neuronal health and cognition. It underscores the interplay among oxidative stress, DNA damage, neurotransmitter imbalance, and altered cellular signaling, emphasizing the central role of glial cells. These cells maintain neural integrity and mediate responses to environmental pollutants; however, lead exposure disrupts their function, suppressing antioxidant defences, activating inflammatory pathways, and ultimately driving neuronal dysfunction. Pb cytotoxicity arises from a coordinated network of cellular responses, with PKC-MAPK-AP, TLR4-NF-κB, and IL-6/TGF-β etc., transcription-factor (NF-κB/Nrf2), and mTOR-mediated autophagy pathways playing key roles in driving dysregulated inflammatory and oxidative-stress processes. Comprehensive interrogation of lead-driven perturbations in glial morphology, activation dynamics, and mitochondrial integrity delineates a cascading sequence of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative pathologies initiated upon exposure. The review advocates a multidisciplinary investigative framework, highlighting the critical roles of the neural microenvironment, epigenetic methylation processes, and Pb-protein complex formation in neurotoxicity. It stresses the integration of environmental science, neurobiology, and toxicology to develop omics (proteomics, metabolomics, and ionomics)-based targeted therapeutic and preventive approaches. By dissecting glial cell dynamics, the review seeks to propel public-health and neurotoxicology initiatives aimed at mitigating Pb-induced cognitive decline and neurodegenerative pathology, ultimately advancing global disease-burden reduction.

A novel reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) method was developed and optimized for the estimation of Mangiferin (MGF) by employing a Quality by Design (QbD) approach. Preliminary method screening was done by the Taguchi OA, followed by using a Box-Behnken Design (BBD), enabling systematic evaluation of critical factors with a reduced number of experimental runs. The model efficiently established significant correlations between selected variables and analytical responses, thereby enhancing the method's robustness and reliability. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a Hyperclone C18 column (4.6 × 250 mm, 5 μm) using an isocratic mobile phase consisting of phosphate buffer (pH 3.2) and acetonitrile (30%) + methanol (70%) in a 78:22% v/v ratio, at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. Detection was performed using a photodiode array detector at 258 nm. The method was validated in accordance with ICH Q2-(R2) guidelines. Validation parameters, including system suitability, linearity, accuracy, precision, robustness, sensitivity, and solution stability, were found within acceptable limits. The proposed method was successfully applied for the analysis of the stability study of MGF and to analyze the release kinetics of MGF SLNs, formulated via high-pressure homogenization and the sonication technique. The results confirm the applicability of the developed RP-HPLC method for routine quality control of combination nanocarrier systems.

Messenger RNA (mRNA)-based therapeutics have revolutionised cancer immunotherapy by enabling transient, non-integrating expression of tumour antigens, cytokines, and immunomodulators. However, the inherent instability and immunogenicity of mRNA necessitate efficient delivery platforms led by lipid nanoparticles (LNPs). This review comprehensively discusses the evolution, design, and application of LNPs for mRNA and gene delivery in cancer immunotherapy. We explore their physicochemical properties, mechanisms of cellular uptake, endosomal escape, and immunogenic potential, alongside surface engineering strategies for tumour targeting. Special emphasis is placed on recent advances in LNP-based mRNA vaccines, CAR-T cell engineering, bispecific antibody delivery, and combinatorial therapies. The article synthesizes insights from preclinical studies, clinical trials, and scalable manufacturing innovations, including microfluidics and tangential flow filtration. Furthermore, we address storage stability, immunotoxicity, and regulatory hurdles that shape clinical translation. Together, these insights underscore LNPs as a transformative vehicle for next-generation mRNA cancer immunotherapies and highlight future directions in overcoming delivery and immune landscape barriers.

The study aimed to develop biocomposite films using natural biopolymers and fibres such as chitosan (A), bacterial cellulose (B) and processed Cyclea leaf gel (C) and natural fibres such as corn silk (D1), coconut husk (D2) and banana flower (D3) fibres, to develop sustainable food packaging applications. The biocomposite films were prepared by blending A, B and C (1), followed by reinforcement of D1, D2 and D3 in the ABC matrix with a 0.5% w/v concentration of fibres. The films were characterised using scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, water vapour permeability and thermogravimetric analysis, including the mechanical properties of the films. The biodegradability of the films was tested under controlled composting conditions. The potential of the biocomposite film as a packaging film was assessed by storing tomatoes at room temperature and in a refrigerator for 10 days. The results indicated that the biocomposite film with corn silk fibre reinforcement had the lowest solubility of 15%, with superior tensile strength, flexibility and hydrophobic properties compared to those of the films reinforced with coconut husk and banana flower fibres. The biodegradability assessment confirmed the environmental compatibility of the films, with the fibres showing the highest biodegradability. In packaging applications, fibre reinforcement outperformed uncovered, control and standard in preserving tomato quality by effectively regulating moisture exchange and preventing physical damage. This study proves that biodegradable biopolymer composite films with natural fibres are eco-friendly alternatives to conventional plastic packaging materials, contributing to sustainable packaging solutions.

Heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70) and nanotechnology have emerged as promising avenues in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) therapy, addressing the critical challenges posed by its aggressive nature and therapeutic resistance. HSP70's dual role in cellular stress response and tumour survival emphasises its potential as both a biomarker and therapeutic target. This review explores the innovative integration of HSP70 with nanotechnology, emphasising advancements in imaging, drug delivery and combination therapies. Nanoparticles, including SPIONs, liposomes, gold nanoparticles and metal-organic frameworks, demonstrate enhanced targeting and therapeutic efficacy through HSP70 modulation. Functionalized nanocarriers exploit HSP70's tumour-specific overexpression to improve drug delivery, minimise off-target effects and overcome the blood-brain barrier. Emerging strategies such as chemophototherapy, immunotherapy and photothermal therapy leverage HSP70's interactions within the tumour microenvironment, enabling synergistic treatment modalities. The review also highlights translational challenges, including heterogeneity of GBM, regulatory hurdles and variability in the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Integrating computational modelling, personalised approaches and adaptive trial designs is crucial for clinical translation. By bridging nanotechnology and molecular biology, HSP70-targeted strategies hold transformative potential to redefine GBM diagnosis and treatment, offering hope for improved survival and quality of life. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00054041 and NCT04628806.