A review of the number and type of studies in mental retardation published in six prominent journals was made. Variables examined included whether the study was applied or not and in the latter case, whether the study was an assessment, treatment or epidemiological paper. Other variables evaluated were length of follow-up, frequency of applied studies published in each journal, whether subjects were children or adults, inpatients or outpatients, level of mental retardation and form of treatment employed. Implications of the present studies with regard to future directions of applied research are discussed.

The performance of goldfish was examined under two-componentchained and tandem food reinforcement schedules with and without briefstimuli added. Both food-paired and nonpaired brief stimuli were evaluatedunder conditions in which each component schedule was a fixed-interval 90-sec and the operant response was contact with the feeder tube. In general, thechained schedule engendered a higher rate of responding than the tandemschedule. Responding within a schedule occurred at the highest rate when afood-paired brief stimulus (tone) was used. The brief stimulus not pairedwith food had little effect on responding. Under both the tandem andchained schedules, a pronounced pattern of positively accelerated respondingwas observed within the initial component when the food-paired briefstimulus was presented. These results indicate that in goldfish, as in betterstudied species, a briefly presented food-paired stimulus is a more effectiveconditioned reinforcer than the presentation of a discriminative stimulusassociated with a schedule component under which food is earned, which is inturn more effective than a nonpaired brief stimulus.

Restrained goldfish experienced 25, 50, 75, or 150 forward conditioning trials with a 9.5-sec conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus (CS-US) interval. The CS was a light, click, or weak electric shock. A transducer monitored US-induced cessation of breathing, unconditioned response (UR), and the decrease in breathing that occurred to the CS after repeated pairings of the CS and US. Following classical conditioning training each fish experienced 25 extinction trials with the CS that it experienced during acquisition. An overtraining extinction effect was obtained; i.e., resistance to extinction for fish with 150 acquisition trials was lower than resistance to extinction for fish with 75 acquisition trials. The overtraining extinction effect was present for a greater number of trials when the CS was a weak shock as opposed to a light or click. Groups with 175 forward conditioning trials indicated that the overtraining extinction effect was not a result of deterioration of the fish across days of training. Control groups with CS alone, US alone, or random CS, US presentations showed that the overtraining extinction effect was a result of extinction of a true conditioned response.

Forty mentally retarded individuals participated in a study designed to examine the relationship between increases and decreases in intelligence test scores and the availability of habilitative programs. Several test administrations were included to allow for analyses across successive conditions and examinations of both interest and intratest peformance were included. The results showed that reinforcement for correct responding increased IQs and reinforcement for incorrect responding decreased IQs. Concomitant with increases and decreases in IQs were increases and decreases in the availability of habilitative programs. These increases and decreases occurred independent of participant performance in the programs. The results are discussed in terms of a behavioral analysis and implications for habilitation.

The present study examined the importance of reliability checks, placebo conditions, and double blind conditions in assessing medication effects with ten institutionalized mentally retarded persons. In addition, a procedure for discontinuing the use of placebo and double blind conditions was explored and all residents received weekly assessments and one year follow-up of withdrawal and persistent dyskinesia. The results empirically demonstrate the importance of using reliability checks, placebo conditions, and double blind conditions. The procedure for discontinuing placebo-double blind conditions was effective and is discussed in terms of ethical and practical issues concerning their use in institutions. Placebo effects were observed to last 12 or more weeks and are discussed in terms of being maintained via operant variables. Withdrawal dyskinesias were present in nine of the ten residents and a 1.5 year follow-up showed persistent dyskinesias present in six of the ten residents. Lip-mouth and tounge movements were the primary dyskinesias.

The present study compared the effectiveness of psychotropic drug, response cost, and psychotropic drug plus response cost procedures in controlling the inappropriate behaviors of 18 institutionalized mentally retarded persons. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of two sequences. Sequence 1 utilized 11 subjects and was drug, drug plus response cost, then response cost. Sequence 2 utilized seven subjects and was drug, placebo (no drug), then response cost. Subjects and staff were blind to conditions and sequences. The results showed that the frequencies of inappropriate behaviors were lowest during the response cost conditions. The drug, drug plus response cost, and placebo conditions resulted in similar frequencies of inappropriate behaviors. These frequencies were approximately 45% higher than those obtained during the response cost conditions. Withdrawal dyskinesias and symptoms were present in 13 of the 18 subjects and a one year follow-up showed persistent dyskinesias present in 7 of the 18 subjects. Results are discussed in terms of drug-behavior interactions and legal and programmatic implications for habilitative training with mentally retarded persons.

Goldfish were classically conditioned with a light as the CS and shock as the US. The UR was a decrease in respiration. After 15 or 60 conditioning trials the fish were tested with novel stimuli (clicks) during the CS-US interval. High and moderate intensity novel stimuli produced a significant decrease in CRs (external inhibition) for fish with 60 conditioning trials (5.5 or 10.5 sec CS-US interval), but not fish with 15 conditioning trials. Low intensity novel stimuli produced no evidence for disinhibition (an increase in CRs). Control groups (e.g., groups with random presentations of the CS and US) showed that the external inhibition for fish with 60 conditioning trials was inhibition of a true CR.

Goldfish were classically conditioned with a shock-induced (unconditioned stimulus) decrease in respiration as the unconditioned response. The fish showed evidence for overshadowing—i.e., they showed greater evidence for conditioning to the more intense element of a two-element compound stimulus. When fish were trained with a single-element Cs for 1 day, followed by a compound stimulus (including the Cs from the first day) on the second day, they showed evidence for blocking. Thus, training with the first stimulus blocked learning about the second stimulus when it was presented in a compound stimulus.

Goldfish were classically conditioned with food or shock as the US for three days using 20 trials per day. The CS was a ten sec light and the CR was activity during the CS-US interval. Fish conditioned with shock as the US learned to decrease activity during CS presentations, while fish trained with food as the US learned to increase activity during CS presentations (inhibition of delay). Tests with novel (disorienting) stimuli (combinations of flashing light and clicks) during CS-US intervals produced disinhibition to the lower intensity novel stimuli and external inhibition to the highest intensity novelstimulus. Fish with shock as the US showed increased responding for all novel stimulus intensities.

Goldfish were trained with large (10 pellets of freeze-dried tubifex worms) or small (1 pellet) reward as the appetitive Us in a forward classical conditioning situation. Activity (Cr) was recorded during each 9.5-sec. Cs-Us interval. The fish experienced 5 days of training with 20 trials per day. One-quarter of the classically conditioned fish with a given Us magnitude were shifted to the opposite Us after the third day of training, and one-quarter were shifted in the middle of the fourth day of training. Fish that were downward-shifted (3 or 3.5 days of training) produced negative contrast effects; that is, they became significantly less active during Cs presentations than fish maintained on the small Us in both phases of the study. Downward shifts were not as rapid as downward shifts obtained with rats in instrumental learning situations. Upward-shifted fish (3 or 3.5 days of training) increased activity, but did not attain the activity level of fish maintained on the large Us in both phases of the study.

The effects of post-conditioning US habituation on the maintenance, extinction, and reconditioning of head withdrawal (CR, UR) in red-eared turtles were examined. The US was a hammer tap to the anterior portion of a turtle’s carapace. The CS was a 2-sec. green light. Following the acquisition of the CR, turtles were used in a chamber adaptation treatment or an habituation treatment. All turtles then received extinction and reconditioning. The extinction data show that the CR, well established to the CS, extinguished spontaneously subsequent to the habituation treatment. Extinction following the chamber adaptation treatment was characteristic of extinction occurring in a classical conditioning situation. The results suggest that the strength of the CR is directly dependent on the strength of the UR.

A simple method for recording discrete events with a cassette tape recorder is described. Since the converter for the recorder is inexpensive, data for several subjects can be recorded simultaneously. The recorder-converter can also be used to program interval schedules. Cassette recorded responses for a subject can be played into a cumulative recorder.