Ultrasound shear wave elastography (SWE) is a non-invasive, low risk technology allowing the assessment of tissue stiffness. Used clinically for nearly two decades to diagnose and stage liver fibrosis and cirrhosis, it has recently been appreciated for its ability to differentiate between more subtle forms of liver dysfunction. In this review, we will discuss the principle of ultrasound shear wave elastography, its traditional utilization in grading liver cirrhosis, as well as its evolving role in identifying more subtle degrees of liver injury. Finally, we will show how this capacity to distinguish nuanced changes may provide an opportunity for its use in perioperative risk stratification.

Objectives: Risk assessment models for cardiac surgery do not distinguish between degrees of liver dysfunction. We have previously shown that preoperative liver stiffness is associated with hospital length of stay following cardiac surgery. The authors hypothesized that a liver stiffness measurement (LSM) ≥ 9.5 kPa would rule out a short hospital length of stay (LOS < 6 days) following isolated coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery. Methods: A prospective observational study of one hundred sixty-four adult patients undergoing non-emergent isolated CABG surgery at a single university hospital center. Preoperative liver stiffness measured by ultrasound elastography was obtained for each participant. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to assess the adjusted relationship between LSM and a short hospital stay. Results: We performed multivariate logistic regression models using short hospital LOS (<6 days) as the dependent variable. Independent variables included LSM (< 9.5 kPa, ≥ 9.5 kPa), age, sex, STS predicted morbidity and mortality, and baseline hemoglobin. After adjusting for included variables, LSM ≥ 9.5 kPa was associated with lower odds of early discharge as compared to LSM < 9.5 kPa (OR: 0.22, 95% CI: 0.06–0.84, p = 0.03). The ROC curve and resulting AUC of 0.76 (95% CI: 0.68–0.83) suggest the final multivariate model provides good discriminatory performance when predicting early discharge. Conclusions: A preoperative LSM ≥ 9.5 kPa ruled out a short length of stay in nearly 80% of patients when compared to patients with a LSM < 9.5 kPa. Preoperative liver stiffness may be a useful metric to incorporate into preoperative risk stratification.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW:Development of advanced and minimally invasive surgical procedures is providing treatment opportunities to older and higher risk patients. This has also led to highly specialized physicians and a need for better communication and planning with the patients and within the care team.RECENT FINDINGS:In the field of cardiac surgery, the heart team model has been advocated and implemented as a vehicle to optimize decision making prior to procedure, care during the procedure and in the recovery process. The goal is to provide a treatment path that prioritizes the patient's goals and to anticipate and minimize complications.SUMMARY:In this review, we discuss the concepts of shared decision making (SDM) and implementation science in the context of the complex cardiac patient. We also review the most recent evidence for their use in cardiac surgery. We argue that a team model not only bridges knowledge gaps but provides a multidisciplinary environment for the practice of SDM and implementation of evidence-based practices. Be believe this will provide patients with a better experience as they navigate their care and improve their medical outcomes as well.

ObjectivesRisk assessment models for cardiac surgery do not account for the degrees of liver dysfunction. Ultrasound shear-wave elastography measures liver stiffness (LSM), a quantitative measurement related to fibrosis, congestion, and inflammation. The authors hypothesized that preoperative liver stiffness would be associated with hospital length of stay after cardiac surgery.DesignProspective observational study.SettingUniversity hospital, single center.ParticipantsOne hundred five adult patients undergoing nonemergent cardiac surgery.InterventionsPreoperative liver stiffness measured by ultrasound elastography.Measurements and Main ResultsThe associations were analyzed using linear mixed models, with adjustments for preoperative variables, duration of cardiopulmonary bypass, and type of surgery. Median liver stiffness was 6.4 kPa (range, 4.1-18.6 kPa). The median length of hospital stay was 6 days (range, 3-18 d). Each unit increase in liver stiffness, treated as a continuous variable, was associated with an increase of 0.32 ± 0.10 days in the hospital (p = 0.002). When treated as a categorical variable (<6 kPa, 6-9.4 kPa, and ≥9.5 kPa), LSM ≥9.5 kPa v LSM <6 kPa was associated strongly with an increase in hospital length of stay of 3.25 ± 0.87 days (p = 0.0003).ConclusionsA preoperative LSM ≥9.5 kPa was associated with a significantly longer postoperative hospital length of stay. This association appeared independent of preoperative comorbidities commonly associated with coronary disease. Preoperative liver stiffness is a novel risk metric that is associated with the postoperative hospital length of stay after cardiac surgery.

Central MessageOpioids are central to cardiac anesthesia and analgesia, but evidence of harm coupled with broader use of multimodal analgesics call for reconsideration of the role of opioids in cardiac surgery.See Commentaries on pages 253, 255, and 257. Opioids are central to cardiac anesthesia and analgesia, but evidence of harm coupled with broader use of multimodal analgesics call for reconsideration of the role of opioids in cardiac surgery. See Commentaries on pages 253, 255, and 257. Feature Editor Note—Since the early days of cardiac surgery, opiates have been a pillar of intraoperative and postoperative analgesia. The hemodynamic profile of opiates and the nature of cardiac surgery have made this class of analgesics indispensable. Nevertheless, cardiac anesthesia and perioperative cardiothoracic care has evolved dramatically in parallel to the surgical and procedural approaches to heart disease. Despite greater patient acuity and complexity, reducing mechanical ventilation and intensive care unit and hospital length of stay while ensuring patient satisfaction during the recovery process has become imperative. Only recently, however, there has been heightened interest in the quality of early recovery after cardiac surgery, and side effects such as nausea, vomiting, and ileus, all of which are common short-term side effects of opioid-based anesthesia and analgesia, have been part of a new focus of attention. Moreover, with the ongoing opioid crisis, the rate of persistent opioid use after recovery from cardiothoracic surgery, and the irresponsible prescription of opiates after recovery make the case to reevaluate the standard processes that involve opiates, including dose reduction, type of opioid, all the way to envisioning the possibility of opioid-less cardiac anesthesia and perioperative care. In this issue of the Journal, Dr Michael C. Grant and colleagues explore these possibilities in a provocative and well-written expert opinion paper. The authors start with the background of the opioid-based cardiac anesthetic and the reasons for which opiates have stayed with the practice of cardiac anesthesia for so long. They continue outlining the harmful effects of opioids and make the case for a change, describing the alternatives at our disposal and providing the framework to do it, including a table with the different agents, dosages and side effects. This expert opinion paper serves as a tool to explore these options and create or participate in studies, so we have more data in the future to reconsider eliminating or significantly reducing opiates in perioperative cardiothoracic care. Juan N. Pulido, MD The anesthetic approach to cardiac surgery has often been described as "opioid-based." More than 5 decades ago, researchers remarked at the relative hemodynamic stability afforded by the use of large-dose intravenous morphine (1 mg/kg) for open cardiac procedures.1Lowenstein E. Hallowell P. Levine F.H. Daggett W.M. Austen W.G. Laver M.B. Cardiovascular response to large doses of intravenous morphine in man.N Engl J Med. 1969; 281: 1389-1393Crossref PubMed Scopus (236) Google Scholar As one of the cornerstone anesthesia references states, "Opioids lack negative inotropic effects in the doses used clinically and have thus found widespread use as the primary agents for cardiac surgery."2Skubas N.J. Lichtman A.D. Wang C.J. Anesthesia for cardiac surgery.in: Paul G. Barash P.G. Cullen B.F. Stoelting R.K. Stock M.C. Stoelting R.K. Ortega R. Clinical Anesthesia. 8th ed. Walters Kluwer, Philadelphia2017Google Scholar With time, morphine has largely been replaced with synthetic alternatives, including fentanyl and sufentanil, due to their heightened potency and even more stable hemodynamic profiles. Recognition of the insufficiency of opioids as a sole agent has contributed to the evolution of the modern-day anesthetic, which includes a balanced application of adjuvants to facilitate amnesia (ie, benzodiazepines), anesthetic maintenance (ie, inhaled fluorinated anesthetics, intravenous propofol), and muscle relaxation (ie, paralytics). Despite these notable additions, the relationship between cardiac surgery and opioids remains fully intact, with even "low-dose" regimens describing fentanyl dosing of 10 to 15 μg/kg per patient, a threshold that outpaces the majority of other present-day surgeries.3Silbert B.S. Scott D.A. Evered L.A. Lewis M.S. Kalpokas M. Maruff P. et al.A comparison of the effect of high- and low-dose fentanyl on the incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction after coronary artery bypass surgery in the elderly.Anesthesiology. 2006; 104: 1137-1145Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar Recently, there has been great interest in re-evaluating the role of opioids for perioperative care. Much of the onus for this movement has stemmed from greater recognition of the harmful side effects associated with their use, including somnolence, nausea and vomiting, and ileus, which are antithetical to the stated objectives of most outpatient, orthopedic, and gastrointestinal surgeries.4Dasinger E.A. Branch-Elliman W. Pizer S.D. Abdulkerim H. Rosen A.K. Charns M.P. et al.Association between postoperative opioid use and outpatient surgical adverse events.Am J Surg. 2019; 217: 605-612Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1) Google Scholar In reality, cardiac surgery has long understood the association between excessive opioid use and subsequent delays in postoperative recovery. Fast-track cardiac anesthesia, a hallmark of which entails the reduction in absolute opioid administration, was devised on the promise of hastening time to endotracheal extubation, reducing pulmonary complications, and limiting expenses associated with intensive care.5Myles P.S. Daly D.J. Djaiani G. Lee A. Cheng D.C. A systematic review of the safety and effectiveness of fast-track cardiac anesthesia.Anesthesiology. 2003; 99: 982-987Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar Interestingly, despite this work, the harmful impacts associated with the use of opioids may well be underreported in the setting of cardiac surgery. Few cardiac programs actively track and report upon opioid-related side effects, even though at least one group revealed a nearly 7% incidence of gastrointestinal complications.6Williams J.B. McConnell G. Allender J.E. Woltz P. Kane K. Smith P.K. et al.One-year results from the first US-based enhanced recovery after cardiac surgery (ERAS Cardiac) program.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2019; 157: 1881-1888Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar A recent publication shows that among Medicare beneficiaries undergoing cardiac surgery, although the documented rate of opioid-related adverse drug events (ORADEs) was 0.7% (743/110,158), the potential rate was markedly greater at 32.4% (35,658/110,158).7Allen K.B. Brovman E.Y. Chhatriwalla A.K. Greco K.J. Rao N. Kumar A. et al.Opioid-related adverse events: incidence and impact in patients undergoing cardiac surgery.Semin Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2020; 24: 219-226Crossref PubMed Scopus (8) Google Scholar The authors go on to show that ORADEs in this setting were associated with longer length of stay, lower reimbursement, and greater health care expense.7Allen K.B. Brovman E.Y. Chhatriwalla A.K. Greco K.J. Rao N. Kumar A. et al.Opioid-related adverse events: incidence and impact in patients undergoing cardiac surgery.Semin Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2020; 24: 219-226Crossref PubMed Scopus (8) Google Scholar It is, therefore, becoming increasingly more difficult to overlook the negative consequences associated with opioid use in cardiac surgery. Perhaps just as compelling, there is mounting evidence that opioid administration in the initial phases of the surgical encounter increases subsequent opioid requirements later on during hospitalization. Typically associated with chronic opioid exposure, patients can develop tolerance (thereby requiring greater amounts of opioids to achieve similar rates of analgesia) or hyperalgesia (paradoxically developing greater pain sensitivity as a result of escalating doses of opioids).8Colvin L.A. Bull F. Hales T.G. Perioperative opioid analgesia-when is enough too much? A review of opioid-induced tolerance and hyperalgesia.Lancet. 2019; 393: 1558-1568Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar In contrast to more chronic examples, acute tolerance and opioid-induced hyperalgesia are now commonly recognized, particularly as a consequence of using short-acting opioids such as fentanyl or remifentanil, even in opioid-naïve patients. Ironically, the push to introduce short-acting opioids to cardiac surgery, in the interest of hastening recovery, may be inducing a greater impetus to increase subsequent opioid exposure, both to address—and even perhaps at the expense of—adequate analgesia. Even more vexing, as one review states, tolerance, "…can be unpredictable, with a narrow therapeutic window between desired effects (usually analgesia) and undesirable respiratory or gastrointestinal effects."8Colvin L.A. Bull F. Hales T.G. Perioperative opioid analgesia-when is enough too much? A review of opioid-induced tolerance and hyperalgesia.Lancet. 2019; 393: 1558-1568Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar As a result, it is highly probable that the rote escalation of opioids will simply expose patients to a greater likelihood of harm rather than more successfully address their pain. One might imagine that if confined to the immediate perioperative encounter (ie, during hospitalization), certain hospital-based strategies to predict, identify, and mitigate ORADES and lessen the occurrence of acute tolerance and/or opioid-induced hyperalgesia would suffice. However, more recent data have confirmed that the negative consequences continue on well after discharge. A great deal of attention has been devoted to the fact that perioperative opioid exposure can predispose patients to chronic opioid use. The overwhelming majority of patients are prescribed opioids at the time of discharge, with the risk of misuse, abuse, or diversion all the more amplified with each additional week prescribed.9Wunsch H. Wijeysundera D.N. Passarella M.A. Neuman M.D. Opioids prescribed after low-risk surgical procedures in the United States, 2004-2012.JAMA. 2016; 315: 1654-1655Crossref PubMed Scopus (187) Google Scholar,10Brat G.A. Agniel D. Beam A. Yorkgitis B. Bicket M. Homer M. et al.Postsurgical prescriptions for opioid naive patients and association with overdose and misuse: retrospective cohort study.BMJ. 2018; 360: j5790Crossref PubMed Scopus (256) Google Scholar A certain percentage of previously opioid-naïve patients continue to consume opioids 90 to 120 days after surgery, a phenomenon termed new persistent opioid use. Recent studies have revealed that persistent opioid use occurs in 6% to 15% of patients who undergo cardiac surgery, among the greatest contributors to chronic opioid use of all subspecialty surgeries.11Brescia A.A. Waljee J.F. Hu H.M. Englesbe M.J. Brummett C.M. Lagisetty P.A. et al.Impact of prescribing on new persistent opioid use after cardiothoracic surgery.Ann Thorac Surg. 2019; 108: 1107-1113Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar, 12Clement K.C. Canner K.J. Lawton J.S. Whitman G.J.R. Grant M.C. Sussman M.S. Predictors of new persistent opioid use after coronary artery bypass grafting.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2020; 160: 954-963.e4Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (14) Google Scholar, 13Clement K.C. Canner J.K. Whitman G.J.R. Lawton J.S. Grant M.C. Sussman M.S. New persistent opioid use after aortic and mitral valve surgery in commercially insured patients.Ann Thorac Surg. 2020; 110: 829-835Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (6) Google Scholar This relationship is directly related to the amount of opioid (ie, morphine sulfate equivalents) prescribed in the immediate postoperative period and on discharge.14Brown C.R. Chen Z. Khurshan F. Groeneveld P.W. Desai N.D. Development of persistent opioid use after cardiac surgery.JAMA Cardiol. 2020; 5: 889-896Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar Put simply, the cardiac surgical enterprise is experiencing an opioid crisis. Although the evidence is mounting to establish the harm associated with opioid use in cardiac surgery, there is cause for optimism. It turns out there are a myriad of reasonable alternatives and techniques both to ensure a balanced, goal-directed anesthetic and achieve optimal perioperative pain management. Anesthetic and analgesic regimens ought to place emphasis on and promote the concurrent use of nonopioid, multimodal medications and techniques, which are repeatedly shown to "have additive, if not synergistic, effects that produce superior analgesia while decreasing opioid use and opioid-related side effects."15Wick E.C. Grant M.C. Wu C.L. Postoperative multimodal analgesia pain management with nonopioid analgesics and techniques: a review.JAMA Surg. 2017; 152: 691-697Crossref PubMed Scopus (330) Google Scholar Viable options include acetaminophen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (ie, ibuprofen, intravenous ketorolac), calcium channel modulators (ie, gabapentin, pregabalin), N-methyl-d-aspartate class of glutamate receptor antagonists (ie, ketamine, magnesium), local anesthetics (ie, intravenous lidocaine), and even alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists (ie, dexmedetomidine, clonidine).15Wick E.C. Grant M.C. Wu C.L. Postoperative multimodal analgesia pain management with nonopioid analgesics and techniques: a review.JAMA Surg. 2017; 152: 691-697Crossref PubMed Scopus (330) Google Scholar Regional anesthesia, whether in the form of catheter-based or "single=shot" nerve block techniques, has been essentially overlooked in the setting of cardiac surgery, despite both the success of its application to other surgical subspecialties and the relative breadth and simplicity of the potential approaches.16Mittnacht A.J.C. Shariat A. Weiner M.M. Malhotra A. Miller M.A. Mahajan A. et al.Regional techniques for cardiac and cardiac-related procedure.J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2019; 33: 532-546Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar These various agents and techniques have been underused in the setting of cardiac surgery, lend themselves to application in all phases of care (ie, pre-, intra-, and postoperative), and represent a true opportunity to shift away from opioids as first (or even second)-line agents for pain management. Whereas each nonopioid has independently been shown to reduce perioperative opioid administration without expensing optimal analgesia, it is admittedly oversimplified to suggest those results will immediately translate to cardiac surgery. Patients who undergo cardiac surgery not only tend to be older and frailer, but they experience a greater incidence of postoperative delirium, organ injury (ie, acute kidney injury), arrhythmia, and hemodynamic instability compared with other subspeciality surgeries.17D'Agostino R.S. Jacobs J.P. Badhwar V. Fernandez F.G. Paone G. Wormuth D.W. et al.The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Adult Cardiac Surgery Database: 2018 Update on Outcomes and Quality.Ann Thorac Surg. 2018; 105: 15-23Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar These unique patient and procedure characteristics have direct implications on the viability of individual agents for cardiac surgery. As a result, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations to each medication or technique, as outlined in Table 1.16Mittnacht A.J.C. Shariat A. Weiner M.M. Malhotra A. Miller M.A. Mahajan A. et al.Regional techniques for cardiac and cardiac-related procedure.J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2019; 33: 532-546Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar,18US Food and Drug Administration Medication guide for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).https://www.fda.gov/media/72932/download#:∼:text=Do%20not%20take%20NSAIDs%20right,after%20a%20recent%20heart%20attackDate: 2020Date accessed: February 10, 2021Google Scholar, 19Verret M. Lauzier F. Zarychanski R. Perron C. Savard X. Pinard A.M. et al.Perioperative use of gabapentinoids for the management of postoperative acute pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Anesthesiology. 2020; 133: 265-279Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar, 20Avidan M.S. Maybrier H.R. Abdallah A.B. Jacobsohn E. Vlisides P.E. Pryor K.O. et al.Intraoperative ketamine for prevention of postoperative delirium or pain after major surgery in older adults: an international, multicentre, double-blind, randomised clinical trial.Lancet. 2017; 390: 267-275Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (178) Google Scholar, 21Wu C.L. King A.B. Geiger T.M. Grant M.C. Grocott M.P.W. Gupta R. et al.American Society for Enhanced Recovery and perioperative quality initiative joint consensus statement on perioperative opioid minimization in opioid-naïve patients.Anesth Analg. 2019; 129: 567-577Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar Furthermore, providing a battery of medications requires appropriate monitoring and expertise to surveil, identify, and prevent the ills associated with various side effects, drug–drug interactions, and polypharmacy. Whereas a host of research has been published on efficacy and safety profiles of opioid-sparing strategies in general surgery, comparatively minimal investigation has been devoted to the topic as it pertains to the cardiac surgical population.Table 1Nonopioid medications and techniquesAgent class (mechanism)Recommended dosing (phase-of-care of administration)Limitation(s),21Wu C.L. King A.B. Geiger T.M. Grant M.C. Grocott M.P.W. Gupta R. et al.American Society for Enhanced Recovery and perioperative quality initiative joint consensus statement on perioperative opioid minimization in opioid-naïve patients.Anesth Analg. 2019; 129: 567-577Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar particularly as associated with cardiac surgeryacetaminophen (unknown; COX inhibitor?)650-1000 mg PO every 6-8 h scheduled; max 3 g/24 h (pre-, intra-, or postoperative)Liver toxicityNSAIDS (nonspecific COX inhibitor)Ketorolac [IV]: 15-30 mg every 6-8 h scheduled (postoperative)Ibuprofen [PO]: 400-800 mg every 6-8 h scheduled (postoperative)Platelet dysfunction; gastrointestinal irritation; renal dysfunction; "black-box warning" in the setting of CABG18US Food and Drug Administration Medication guide for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).https://www.fda.gov/media/72932/download#:∼:text=Do%20not%20take%20NSAIDs%20right,after%20a%20recent%20heart%20attackDate: 2020Date accessed: February 10, 2021Google Scholardexmedetomidine (alpha-2 agonist)0.5-1.5 μg/kg/h infusion (intra-, postoperative)Hypotension, bradycardiaGabapentinoids (voltage gated calcium channel modulator)Gabapentin: 300-600 mg (pre); 100-300 mg every 8 h scheduled (postoperative)Pregabalin: 50-150 mg (preoperative); 50-150 mg every 8 h scheduled (postoperative)Gabapentin: dizziness, sedation, respiratory depression, renally excreted, questionable efficacy19Verret M. Lauzier F. Zarychanski R. Perron C. Savard X. Pinard A.M. et al.Perioperative use of gabapentinoids for the management of postoperative acute pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Anesthesiology. 2020; 133: 265-279Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google ScholarPregabalin: altered vision, renally excretedlidocaine [IV] (voltage-gated sodium channel inhibitor)1 mg/kg bolus (intra); 0.5-2.0 mg/kg/h infusion (intra-, postoperative)Optimal dosage regimen uncertain, local anesthetic toxicity monitoring, risk for seizureketamine (N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist)0.1-1.0 mg/kg bolus (intra-); 0.1-0.2 mg/kg/h infusion (intra-, postoperative)Tachycardia (bolus), questionable efficacy, optimal dosage regimen uncertain20Avidan M.S. Maybrier H.R. Abdallah A.B. Jacobsohn E. Vlisides P.E. Pryor K.O. et al.Intraoperative ketamine for prevention of postoperative delirium or pain after major surgery in older adults: an international, multicentre, double-blind, randomised clinical trial.Lancet. 2017; 390: 267-275Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (178) Google Scholarregional analgesia"Sngle shot": serratus anterior [thoracotomy], transverse thoracic plane, parasternal, pectoralis nerve block [sternotomy] (intraoperative) catheter-based: erector spinae (pre-, intra-, postoperative)Failure of technique, local anesthetic toxicity, unclear efficacy, wide variation in block type as well as local type and infusate adjuncts,16Mittnacht A.J.C. Shariat A. Weiner M.M. Malhotra A. Miller M.A. Mahajan A. et al.Regional techniques for cardiac and cardiac-related procedure.J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2019; 33: 532-546Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar special provider training necessaryCOX, Cyclooxygenase; PO, per os; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents; IV, intravenous; CABG, coronary artery bypass grafting. Open table in a new tab COX, Cyclooxygenase; PO, per os; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents; IV, intravenous; CABG, coronary artery bypass grafting. It is in the area of research and implementation that the development of a comprehensive perioperative care delivery program, such as Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS), can provide value when applied to the cardiac landscape. ERAS programs, which involve the phase-specific, bundled application of numerous evidence-based interventions throughout the surgical encounter, are designed to mitigate the stress associated with surgical insult, hasten recovery, and reduce preventable harms associated with more conventional care.22Salenger R. Morton-Bailey V. Grant M. Gregory A. Williams J.B. Engelman D.T. Cardiac Enhanced Recovery After Surgery: a guide to team building and successful implementation.Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2020; 32: 187-196Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar A foundational aspect of ERAS programs is the recruitment of a multidisciplinary team, including stakeholders from surgery, anesthesiology, nursing, clinical pharmacy, and acute pain management, among others, to protocolize (where appropriate) desired technical patient care components. Drawing upon this diverse expertise ensures patients not only receive core interventions such as nonopioid medications but are similarly highlighted in the event they present with contraindications to those interventions. Systems engineers, who are tasked with the design and implementation of similar complex programs, would support this brand of consensus building and protocolization as a means to reduce unwanted variation (ie, inconsistent or disparate care), but ensure wanted variation (ie, avoid inappropriate application of protocol elements to high-risk individuals).23Kossiakoff A. Sweet W.N. Seymour S.J. Biemer S.M. Systems Engineering Principles and Practice.2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken2011Crossref Scopus (336) Google Scholar Momentum around and evidence for nonopioid analgesia is supported by the consensus guideline put forward by the ERAS Cardiac Society, who recommend the use of a "perioperative, multimodal, opioid-sparing, pain management plan."24Engelman D.T. Ben Ali W. Williams J.B. Perrault L.P. Reddy V.S. Arora R.C. et al.Guidelines for perioperative care in cardiac surgery: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Society Recommendations.JAMA Surg. 2019; 154: 755-766Crossref PubMed Scopus (229) Google Scholar Although they stop short of outlining how such a plan might be achieved, there are at least 2 observational cohorts who have published compelling examples of their multimodal pain strategies in cardiac surgery. The first provided a combination of dose-adjusted gabapentin and acetaminophen before and in a scheduled fashion following surgery. Based on a before–after analysis, they reported a significant reduction in postoperative opioids, as well as a nearly 50% reduction in rates of gastrointestinal complications.6Williams J.B. McConnell G. Allender J.E. Woltz P. Kane K. Smith P.K. et al.One-year results from the first US-based enhanced recovery after cardiac surgery (ERAS Cardiac) program.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2019; 157: 1881-1888Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar Another group evaluated the results of the initial preanesthesia and intraoperative phases of an enhanced recovery program for cardiac surgery, which included the preoperative administration of dose-adjusted gabapentin and acetaminophen, as well as intraoperative subhypnotic ketamine, dexmedetomidine, and regional analgesia.25Grant M.C. Isada T. Ruzankin P. Whitman G. Lawton J.S. Dodd -O.J. et al.Results from an Enhanced Recovery Program for cardiac surgery.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2019; 159: 1392-1402PubMed Google Scholar,26Grant M.C. Isada T. Ruzankin P. Gottschalk A. Whitman G. Lawton J.S. et al.Opioid-sparing cardiac anesthesia: secondary analysis of an Enhanced Recovery Program for cardiac surgery.Anesth Analg. 2020; 131: 1852-1861Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar Increased compliance with the outline revealed an inverse relationship with absolute intraoperative opioid exposure, with numerous patients achieving an "ultra-low" level of opioid (≤25 morphine sulfate equivalents) and a handful of patients managed entirely opioid-free.26Grant M.C. Isada T. Ruzankin P. Gottschalk A. Whitman G. Lawton J.S. et al.Opioid-sparing cardiac anesthesia: secondary analysis of an Enhanced Recovery Program for cardiac surgery.Anesth Analg. 2020; 131: 1852-1861Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar This lattermost finding suggests that not only are there comprehensive strategies to consistently limit opioids, but that optimal anesthesia and analgesia for cardiac surgery is feasible without opioids altogether. A full appraisal of existing ERAS programs for cardiac surgery is incomplete without acknowledging that success is underpinned equally by the careful selection of their bundled technical interventions as well as their more adaptive components. Williams and colleagues6Williams J.B. McConnell G. Allender J.E. Woltz P. Kane K. Smith P.K. et al.One-year results from the first US-based enhanced recovery after cardiac surgery (ERAS Cardiac) program.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2019; 157: 1881-1888Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar incorporated the Knowledge-to-Action framework for implementation, which assesses and adapts interventions based upon local barriers and enablers, including unit culture and key stakeholder perspectives. Grant and colleagues25Grant M.C. Isada T. Ruzankin P. Whitman G. Lawton J.S. Dodd -O.J. et al.Results from an Enhanced Recovery Program for cardiac surgery.J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2019; 159: 1392-1402PubMed Google Scholar was grounded in the Comprehensive Unit-based Safety Program, a model for intervention that relies heavily on nursing, advanced provider, and bedside physician grassroots implementation, which empowers front-line providers to reinforce a culture of safety and patient-centered care. As Salenger and colleagues22Salenger R. Morton-Bailey V. Grant M. Gregory A. Williams J.B. Engelman D.T. Cardiac Enhanced Recovery After Surgery: a guide to team building and successful implementation.Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2020; 32: 187-196Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar describe in a recent guide for ERAS implementation, "Several core principles transcend all ERAS cardiac programs. Implementation of cardiac ERAS is more than simply the installation of a protocol. ERAS involves a methodical shift in culture…" Marrying the technical and adaptive components is essential to establishing a culture that recognizes the harms of opioid administration and strives to seek thoughtful alternatives. Unfortunately, ERAS programs are not a panacea. The literature is replete with examples of ERAS for noncardiac surgery, including those who have provided descriptions of entire surgical encounters (ie, preoperative phase to time of discharge) which were opioid-free. Incredibly, despite those efforts, patients were still prescribed the same number of opioids on discharge.27Brandal D. Keller M.S. Lee C. Grogan T. Fujimoto Y. Gricourt Y. et al.Impact of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery and opioid-free anesthesia on opioid prescriptions at discharge from the hospital: a historical-prospective study.Anesth Analg. 2017; 125: 1784-1792Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar This serves to highlight the potential disconnect between care provided in one phase compared with another, as well as the lack of support for discharge transitioning and prescription management. Although strategies have been articulated, including real-time assessment, conversion and calculation of opioid requirements, de-escalation of opioid dosing, prescription monitoring and pill counting, among others,28Kent M.L. Hurley R.W. Oderda G.M. Gordon D.B. Sun E. Mythen M. et al.American Society for Enhanced Recovery and Perioperative quality initiative-4 joint consensus statement on persistent postoperative opioid use: definition, incidence, risk factors, and health care system initiatives.Anesth Analg. 2019; 129: 543-552Crossref PubMed Scopus (36) Google Scholar there simply are not robust networks that have been created to ensure adequate post discharge analgesia, yet reasonably monitor and intervene on risky behavior where necessary. There is, admittedly, a great deal more work to be done to devise creative solutions to track opioid administration, both during hospitalization and thereafter. Looking forward, clinician researchers are tasked with several important objectives (Figure 1). Despite the harms associated with opioids and the opportunity afforded by the various alternatives, examples of opioid-free anesthesia and analgesia in the cardiac surgical setting are thus far limited to case reports and small subsets of observational cohorts.26Grant M.C. Isada T. Ruzankin P. Gottschalk A. Whitman G. Lawton J.S. et al.Opioid-sparing cardiac anesthesia: secondary analysis of an Enhanced Recovery Program for cardiac surgery.Anesth Analg. 2020; 131: 1852-1861Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar,29Guinot P.G. Spitz A. Berthoud V. Ellouze O. Missaoui A. Constandache T. et al.Effect of opioid-free anaesthesia on post-operative period in cardiac surgery: a retrospective matched case-control study.BMC Anesthesiol. 2019; 19: 136Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar, 30Landry E. Burns S. Pelletier M.P. Muehlschlegel J.D. A successful opioid-free anesthetic in a patient undergoing cardiac surgery.J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2019; 33: 2517-2520Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar, 31Chanowski E.J.P. Horn J.L. Boyd J.H. Tsui B.C.H. Brodt J.L. Opioid-free ultra-fast-track on-pump coronary artery bypass grafting using erector spinae plane catheters.J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2019; 33: 1988-1990Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar Certainly, to garner more widespread support, opioid-free (or even opioid-sparing) strategies need not only establish feasibility, but identify and promote algorithms that have both similar analgesic efficacy as well as greater safety profiles than the present approach. It is also important to admit that opioids are not inherently evil. When used as they were originally intended (ie, to address pain that is otherwise unmanageable with alternative means, applied in the lowest effective dose for the shortest period possible), opioids may still represent an important arrow in the quiver of perioperative pain control.

Right ventricular diastolic dysfunction and failure (RVDDF) has been increasingly identified in patients with cardiovascular diseases, including heart failure and other diseases with cardiac involvement. It is unknown whether RVDDF exists as a distinct clinical entity; however, its presence and degree have been shown to be a sensitive marker of end-organ dysfunction related to multiple disease processes including systemic hypertension, pulmonary hypertension, heart failure, and endocrine disease. In this manuscript, we review issues pertaining to RVDDF including anatomic features of the right ventricle, physiologic measurements, RVDDF diagnosis, underlying mechanisms, clinical impact, and clinical management. Several unique features of RVDDF are also discussed.

The use of clinical dashboards has expanded significantly in healthcare in recent years in a variety of settings. The ability to analyze data related to quality metrics in one screen is highly desirable for cardiac anesthesiologists, as they have considerable influence on important clinical outcomes. Building a robust quality program within cardiac anesthesia relies on consistent access and review of quality outcome measures, process measures, and operational measures through a clinical dashboard. Signals and trends in these measures may be compared to other cardiac surgical programs to analyze gaps and areas for quality improvement efforts. In this article, the authors describe how they designed a clinical cardiac anesthesia dashboard for quality efforts at their institution.

BACKGROUND: Although frailty has been associated with major morbidity/mortality and increased length of stay after cardiac surgery, few studies have examined functional outcomes. We hypothesized that frailty would be independently associated with decreased functional status, increased discharge to a nonhome location, and longer duration of hospitalization after cardiac surgery, and that delirium would modify these associations. METHODS: This was an observational study nested in 2 trials, each of which was conducted by the same research team with identical measurement of exposures and outcomes. The Fried frailty scale was measured at baseline. The primary outcome (defined before data collection) was functional decline, defined as ≥2-point decline from baseline in Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) score at 1 month after surgery. Secondary outcomes were absolute decline in IADL score, discharge to a new nonhome location, and duration of hospitalization. Associations were analyzed using linear, logistic, and Poisson regression models with adjustments for variables considered before analysis (age, gender, race, and logistic European Score for Cardiac Operative Risk Evaluation [EuroSCORE]) and in a propensity score analysis. RESULTS: Data were available from 133 patients (83 from first trial and 50 from the second trial). The prevalence of frailty was 33% (44 of 133). In adjusted models, frail patients had increased odds of functional decline (primary outcome; odds ratio [OR], 2.41 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.03–5.63]; P = .04) and greater decline at 1 month in the secondary outcome of absolute IADL score (−1.48 [95% CI, −2.77 to −0.30]; P = .019), compared to nonfrail patients. Delirium significantly modified the association of frailty and change in absolute IADL score at 1 month. In adjusted hypothesis-generating models using secondary outcomes, frail patients had increased discharge to a new nonhome location (OR, 3.25 [95% CI, 1.37–7.69]; P = .007) and increased duration of hospitalization (1.35 days [95% CI, 1.19–1.52]; P < .0001) compared to nonfrail patients. The increased duration of hospitalization, but no change in functional status or discharge location, was partially mediated by increased complications in frail patients. CONCLUSIONS: Frailty may identify patients at risk of functional decline at 1 month after cardiac surgery. Perioperative strategies to optimize frail cardiac surgery patients are needed.

Survival rates for patients with palliated congenital heart disease are increasing, and an increasing number of adults with cyanotic congenital heart disease (CCHD) might require surgical resection of pheochromocytoma-paraganglioma (PHEO-PGL). A recent study supports the idea that patients with a history of CCHD and current or historical cyanosis might be at increased risk for developing PHEO-PGL. We review the anesthetic management of two adults with single-ventricle physiology following Fontan palliation presenting for PHEO-PGL resection and review prior published case reports. We found the use of epidural analgesia to be safe and effective in the operative and postoperative management of our patients.

In this issue of the American Journal of Neuroradiology , a novel approach by means of MR-guided, focused sonography surgery (MRgFUS) is used to treat essential tremor.[1][1] The results indicate that clinical improvement is significantly related to total lesion size. No relationship was found

SUMMARY: Advances in nanotechnology have the potential to dramatically enhance the detection of neurologic diseases with targeted contrast agents and to facilitate the delivery of focused therapies to the central nervous system. We present the physicochemical rationale for their use, applications in animal models, and ongoing clinical trials using these approaches. We highlight advances in the use of nanoparticles applied to brain tumor imaging, tumor angiogenesis, neurodegeneration, grafted stem cells, and neuroprogenitor cells.

OBJECT:Chiari malformation Type I (CM-I) is characterized by hindbrain deformity. We investigated the effects of craniocervical decompression surgery on the anatomical features of hindbrain deformity with a prospective MRI study of patients with CM-I.METHODS:A prospective longitudinal study was conducted in 48 patients with CM-I (39 with syringomyelia) treated with craniocervical decompression. Clinical examinations and cervical MRI were performed before surgery and 1 week, 3-6 months, and annually after surgery. Hindbrain deformity was defined by tonsillar ectopia, pointed cerebellar tonsils, and/or cervicomedullary protuberance. The length of the clivus, basiocciput (sphenooccipital synchondrosis to basion), supraocciput (internal occipital protuberance to opisthion), and anteroposterior (AP) width of CSF pathways at the foramen magnum were measured and compared with those from 18 healthy volunteers (control group).RESULTS:Before surgery, the patients' posterior fossa bones were short and their CSF pathways were narrow. All patients had tonsillar ectopia (mean [± SD] 12.3 ± 5.1 mm; normal 0.3 ± 1.0). The majority of patients had pointed tonsils and more than two-thirds exhibited a cervicomedullary protuberance. Clivus and basiocciput lengths were significantly shorter than the values obtained in the control group. However, the supraocciput length did not differ significantly from control measurements. The mean bulbopontine sulcus distance superior to the basion was 9.5 ± 2.6 mm (vs 13.6 ± 2.8 mm in controls; p < 0.0001). The AP widths of the CSF pathways at the level of the foramen magnum were significantly narrowed. After surgery, CSF pathways significantly expanded both ventrally and dorsally. By 3-6 months after surgery, pointed tonsils became round, cervicomedullary protuberance disappeared, and tonsillar ectopia diminished by 51% (to 6.0 ± 3.3 mm; p < 0.0001).CONCLUSIONS:The cerebellar tonsils and brainstem assumed a normal appearance within 6 months after craniocervical decompression. These findings support the concept that the CM-I is not a congenital malformation of the neural elements but rather an acquired malformation that arises from pulsatile impaction of the cerebellar tonsils into the foramen magnum. Clinical trial registration no.: NCT00001327.

OBJECT:Craniocervical decompression for Chiari malformation Type I (CM-I) and syringomyelia has been reported to fail in 10%-40% of patients. The present prospective clinical study was designed to test the hypothesis that in cases in which syringomyelia persists after surgery, craniocervical decompression relieves neither the physiological block at the foramen magnum nor the mechanism of syringomyelia progression. METHODS:The authors prospectively evaluated and treated 16 patients with CM-I who had persistent syringomyelia despite previous craniocervical decompression. Testing before surgery included the following: 1) clinical examination; 2) evaluation of the anatomy using T1-weighted MR imaging; 3) assessment of the syrinx and CSF velocity and flow using cine phase-contrast MR imaging; and 4) appraisal of the lumbar and cervical subarachnoid pressures at rest, during a Valsalva maneuver, during jugular compression, and following the removal of CSF (CSF compliance measurement). During surgery, ultrasonography was performed to observe the motion of the cerebellar tonsils and syrinx walls; pressure measurements were obtained from the intracranial and lumbar intrathecal spaces. The surgical procedure involved enlarging the previous craniectomy and performing an expansile duraplasty with autologous pericranium. Three to 6 months after surgery, clinical examination, MR imaging, and CSF pressure recordings were repeated. Clinical examination and MR imaging studies were then repeated annually. RESULTS:Before reexploration, patients had a decreased size of the CSF pathways and a partial blockage in CSF transmission at the foramen magnum. Cervical subarachnoid pressure and pulse pressure were abnormally elevated. During surgery, ultrasonographic imaging demonstrated active pulsation of the cerebellar tonsils, with the tonsils descending during cardiac systole and concomitant narrowing of the upper pole of the syrinx. Three months after reoperation, patency of the CSF pathways was restored and pressure transmission was improved. The flow of syrinx fluid and the diameter of the syrinx decreased after surgery in 15 of 16 patients. CONCLUSIONS:Persistent blockage of the CSF pathways at the foramen magnum resulted in increased pulsation of the cerebellar tonsils, which acted on a partially enclosed cervical subarachnoid space to create elevated cervical CSF pressure waves, which in turn affected the external surface of the spinal cord to force CSF into the spinal cord through the Virchow-Robin spaces and to propel the syrinx fluid caudally, leading to syrinx progression. A surgical procedure that reestablished the CSF pathways at the foramen magnum reversed this pathophysiological mechanism and resolved syringomyelia. Elucidating the pathophysiology of persistent syringomyelia has implications for its primary and secondary treatment.