One of the fundamental challenges in basic neuroscience is to understand the molecular genetic networks associated with building the brain. As malfunction in these genetic pathways can lead to disorders like cancer, brain development is also a crucial research area for clinical neuroscience. In the course of this thesis, different molecular aspects of Drosophila brain development and related neoplastic disease were analyzed using high-density oligonucleotide arrays. The homeotic selector gene labial (lab) plays an important role in specification of neuronal identity in the embryonic brain of Drosophila. In labial mutants presumptive neurons in the posterior tritocerebrum fail to differentiate. This leads to severe defects in tritocerebral axon pathways. Using high density oligonucleotide arrays we identified downstream target genes of Labial and showed that only a limited and distinct set of genes expressed in the embryo is regulated by this homeoprotein. Furthermore, we performed genetic rescue experiments to analyze the functional equivalence of Drosophila Hox gene products in specification of the tritocerebral neuromere. Surprisingly, all tested homeotic proteins, with the exception of Abd-B, were able to rescue the labial mutant phenotype in the tritocerebrum. These results indicate that the specificity of homeotic gene action in embryonic brain development has to be modulated by cis-acting regulatory elements. Another study circled around the homeobox transcription factor otd and its human homolog Otx2. Cross-phylum rescue experiments have shown that these genes are functionally equivalent. We used quantitative transcript imaging to analyze otd and Otx gene action in the Drosophila embryo at a genomic level. Our experiments suggest that about one third of the Otd-regulated transcripts in Drosophila can also be controlled by the human Otx2. These common otd/Otx2 downstream genes are likely to represent the molecular basis for the functional equivalence of otd and Otx2 gene action in Drosophila. glial cells missing (gcm) is a key control gene of gliogenesis. gcm loss-of-function leads to a transformation of glial cells into neurons and, conversely, when gcm is ectopically misexpressed, presumptive neurons become glia. Since gcm encodes a transcription factor it is supposed that a set of downstream genes are regulated by GCM that in turn execute the glial differentiation program. Again, a set of full-genome transcript profiling experiments was conducted to identify gcm downstream genes in a comprehensive manner. A set of several hundred candidate gcm target genes were identified in this screen, giving new insights into neuroglial fate specification in Drosophila. Brain tumors have been extensively studied by looking at genetic alterations and mutations that lead to malignant growth. Still, the causes of brain tumorigenesis are largely unknown. Model systems like Drosophila can be of great help to shed light on altered transcriptional activity in brain tumor phenotypes. To investigate the in vivo transcriptional activity associated with a brain tumor, we conducted genome-wide microarray expression analyses of an adult brain tumor in Drosophila caused by homozygous mutation in the tumor suppressor gene brain tumor (brat). Two independent gene expression studies using two different oligonucleotide microarray platforms were used to compare the transcriptome of adult wildtype flies with mutants displaying the adult bratk06028 mutant brain tumor. Cross-validation and stringent statistical criteria identified a core transcriptional signature of bratk06028 neoplastic tissue. We found highly significant expression level changes for 321 annotated genes associated with the adult neoplastic bratk06028 tissue indicating elevated and aberrant metabolic and cell cycle activity, upregulation of the basal transcriptional machinery, as well as elevated and aberrant activity of ribosome synthesis and translation control. One fifth of these genes show homology to known mammalian genes involved in cancer formation. These results identify for the first time the genome-wide transcriptional alterations associated with an adult brain tumor in Drosophila and reveal insights into the possible mechanisms of tumor formation caused by homozygous mutation of the translational repressor brat.

BACKGROUND:Mutations and gene expression alterations in brain tumors have been extensively investigated, however the causes of brain tumorigenesis are largely unknown. Animal models are necessary to correlate altered transcriptional activity and tumor phenotype and to better understand how these alterations cause malignant growth. In order to gain insights into the in vivo transcriptional activity associated with a brain tumor, we carried out genome-wide microarray expression analyses of an adult brain tumor in Drosophila caused by homozygous mutation in the tumor suppressor gene brain tumor (brat).RESULTS:Two independent genome-wide gene expression studies using two different oligonucleotide microarray platforms were used to compare the transcriptome of adult wildtype flies with mutants displaying the adult bratk06028 mutant brain tumor. Cross-validation and stringent statistical criteria identified a core transcriptional signature of brat(k06028) neoplastic tissue. We find significant expression level changes for 321 annotated genes associated with the adult neoplastic brat(k06028) tissue indicating elevated and aberrant metabolic and cell cycle activity, upregulation of the basal transcriptional machinery, as well as elevated and aberrant activity of ribosome synthesis and translation control. One fifth of these genes show homology to known mammalian genes involved in cancer formation.CONCLUSION:Our results identify for the first time the genome-wide transcriptional alterations associated with an adult brain tumor in Drosophila and reveal insights into the possible mechanisms of tumor formation caused by homozygous mutation of the translational repressor brat.

In Drosophila, the glial cells missing (gcm) gene encodes a transcription factor that controls the determination of glial versus neuronal fate. In gcm mutants, presumptive glial cells are transformed into neurons and, conversely, when gcm is ectopically misexpressed, presumptive neurons become glia. Although gcm is thought to initiate glial cell development through its action on downstream genes that execute the glial differentiation program, little is known about the identity of these genes. To identify gcm downstream genes in a comprehensive manner, we used genome-wide oligonucleotide arrays to analyze differential gene expression in wild-type embryos versus embryos in which gcm is misexpressed throughout the neuroectoderm. Transcripts were analyzed at two defined temporal windows during embryogenesis. During the first period of initial gcm action on determination of glial cell precursors, over 400 genes were differentially regulated. Among these are numerous genes that encode other transcription factors, which underscores the master regulatory role of gcm in gliogenesis. During a second later period, when glial cells had already differentiated, over 1200 genes were differentially regulated. Most of these genes, including many genes for chromatin remodeling factors and cell cycle regulators, were not differentially expressed at the early stage, indicating that the genetic control of glial fate determination is largely different from that involved in maintenance of differentiated cells. At both stages, glial-specific genes were upregulated and neuron-specific genes were downregulated, supporting a model whereby gcm promotes glial development by activating glial genes, while simultaneously repressing neuronal genes. In addition, at both stages, numerous genes that were not previously known to be involved in glial development were differentially regulated and, thus, identified as potential new downstream targets of gcm. For a subset of the differentially regulated genes, tissue-specific in vivo expression data were obtained that confirmed the transcript profiling results. This first genome-wide analysis of gene expression events downstream of a key developmental transcription factor presents a novel level of insight into the repertoire of genes that initiate and maintain cell fate choices in CNS development.

Background: Homeobox genes of the orthodenticle (otd)/Otx family have conserved roles in the embryogenesis of head and brain. Gene replacement experiments show that the Drosophila otd gene and orthologous mammalian Otx genes are functionally equivalent, in that overexpression of either gene in null mutants of Drosophila or mouse can restore defects in cephalic and brain development. This suggests that otd and Otx genes control a comparable subset of downstream target genes in either organism. Here we use quantitative transcript imaging to analyze this equivalence of otd and Otx gene action at a genomic level.Results: Oligonucleotide arrays representing 13,400 annotated Drosophila genes were used to study differential gene expression in flies in which either the Drosophila otd gene or the human Otx2 gene was overexpressed. Two hundred and eighty-seven identified transcripts showed highly significant changes in expression levels in response to otd overexpression, and 682 identified transcripts showed highly significant changes in expression levels in response to Otx2 overexpression. Among these, 93 showed differential expression changes following overexpression of either otd or Otx2, and for 90 of these, comparable changes were observed under both experimental conditions. We postulate that these transcripts are common downstream targets of the fly otd gene and the human Otx2 gene in Drosophila.Conclusion: Our experiments indicate that approximately one third of the otd-regulated transcripts also respond to overexpression of the human Otx2 gene in Drosophila. These common otd/ Otx2 downstream genes are likely to represent the molecular basis of the functional equivalence of otd and Otx2 gene action in Drosophila.

Background: Homeotic genes are key developmental regulators that are highly conserved throughout evolution. Their encoded homeoproteins function as transcription factors to control a wide range of developmental processes. Although much is known about homeodomain-DNA interactions, only a small number of genes acting downstream of homeoproteins have been identified. Here we use a functional genomic approach to identify candidate target genes of the Drosophila homeodomain transcription factor Labial.Results: High-density oligonucleotide arrays with probe sets representing 1,513 identified and sequenced genes were used to analyze differential gene expression following labial overexpression in Drosophila embryos. We find significant expression level changes for 96 genes belonging to all functional classes represented on the array. In accordance with our experimental procedure, we expect that these genes are either direct or indirect targets of labial gene action. Among these genes, 48 were upregulated and 48 were downregulated following labial overexpression. This corresponds to 6.3% of the genes represented on the array. For a selection of these genes, we show that the data obtained with the oligonucleotide arrays are consistent with data obtained using quantitative RT-PCR.Conclusions: Our results identify a number of novel candidate downstream target genes for Labial, suggesting that this homeoprotein differentially regulates a limited and distinct set of embryonically expressed Drosophila genes.

Embryonic development in Drosophila is characterized by an early phase during which a cellular blastoderm is formed and gastrulation takes place, and by a later postgastrulation phase in which key morphogenetic processes such as segmentation and organogenesis occur. We have focused on this later phase in embryogenesis with the goal of obtaining a comprehensive analysis of the zygotic gene expression that occurs during development under normal and altered environmental conditions. For this, a functional genomic approach to embryogenesis has been developed that uses high-density oligonucleotide arrays for large-scale detection and quantification of gene expression. These oligonucleotide arrays were used for quantitative transcript imaging of embryonically expressed genes under standard conditions and in response to heat shock. In embryos raised under standard conditions, transcripts were detected for 37% of the 1,519 identified genes represented on the arrays, and highly reproducible quantification of gene expression was achieved in all cases. Analysis of differential gene expression after heat shock revealed substantial expression level changes for known heat-shock genes and identified numerous heat shock-inducible genes. These results demonstrate that high-density oligonucleotide arrays are sensitive, efficient, and quantitative instruments for the analysis of large scale gene expression in Drosophila embryos.

We have studied the roles of the homeobox genes orthodenticle (otd) and empty spiracles (ems) in embryonic brain development of Drosophila. The embryonic brain is composed of three segmental neuromeres. The otd gene is expressed predominantly in the anterior neuromere; expression of ems is restricted to the two posterior neuromeres. Mutation of otd eliminates the first (protocerebral) brain neuromere. Mutation of ems eliminates the second (deutocerebral) and third (tritocerebral) neuromeres. otd is also necessary for development of the dorsal protocerebrum of the adult brain. We conclude that these homeobox genes are required for the development of specific brain segments in Drosophila, and that the regionalized expression of their homologs in vertebrate brains suggests an evolutionarily conserved program for brain development.