Decommodification is promoted as a sustainability strategy in bulk commodity sectors such as cacao or coffee. Fine flavour cacao (FFC) may contribute to decommodifying the cacao sector. However, such decommodification may lead to new patterns of exclusion among smallholder producers, depending on how well they are able to meet more stringent quality requirements. This study assesses the extent to which producers of two of Peru's premier FFCs match the requirements of FFCs buyers. We interviewed 76 Peruvian and international FFC buyers and 337 cacao farmer households from 114 communities in the Peruvian departments of Cusco and Piura. We used ordination and cluster analysis to construct buyer and producer typologies, and developed a methodology to assess how well each producer type matches the requirements of each buyer type. While certain producers are well positioned to comply with the demands of specific buyers, wide gaps remain for producers to benefit from FFC, notably those related to quality aspects of cacao beans, but also ecological and socio-economic considerations, such as zero-deforestation and agroforestry-grown cacao, and enhanced participation of women in the value chain. If decommodification of cacao is to benefit vulnerable smallholder producers, institutions and trade relationships are needed that allow more producers to meet the more stringent requirements of a diversified, high-quality cacao sector.

Native fine flavor cacao fetches premium prices on specialty markets, owing to its superior sensorial traits. However, alleged low productivity limits its planting, and high-yielding bulk cacao dominates the international market. Overcoming the yield gap is necessary to promote fine flavor cacao and thus conserve cacao’s native genetic diversity, while increasing farmers’ revenues. We studied the compatibility and yield potential of six Blanco de Piura cacao genotypes, a fine flavour landrace from northwestern Peru. We compared planting designs with different genotype diversity and assessed the impact of plantation management intensity (frequency of pruning and removal of infested pods) on productivity. Following renewing the canopy of adult cacao trees using grafting, we quantified the yields of the six white-bean genotypes on 12 smallholder farms using three clonal designs: (1) monoclonal (one genotype per plot), (2) polyclonal rows (three genotypes alternated by row), and (3) polyclonal trees (three genotypes per tree). Yields were monitored for 3 years, starting 2 years after grafting, and compared with non-grafted controls. After 3 years, grafted trees yielded 59

Societal Impact Statement Brazil has tens of millions of hectares of degraded land that must be restored to meet national and global biodiversity and climate goals. Sowing genetically diverse native seeds is key to restoring degraded lands to climate-resilient landscapes, but we still lack guidance on how to effectively match seed sources to restoration sites across broad geographic scales, within the context of a changing climate. We addressed this by identifying 48 seed transfer zones (STZs) based on current and expected future climatic conditions. These zones will help ensure that the right seeds are used in the right places, enabling more effective and climate-smart restoration for nature and people.Summary Ecosystem restoration is key to addressing the biodiversity, climate and social inequality crises. In Brazil, large-scale seed-based restoration is gaining momentum, but a national framework to match seed sources with planting sites is still lacking, undermining long-term success. We developed the first seed transfer zones (STZs) for Brazil using 25 environmental variables. We assessed restoration supply and demand within each STZ and projected the zones into the future under contrasting climate change scenarios. We identified 48 STZs, distributed across Brazil's six major vegetation regions (Amazon, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Caatinga, Pantanal and Pampa). Overlaying the STZs with data on seed collection capacity and restoration opportunities revealed priority regions where seed supply is unlikely to meet demand (e.g., Cerrado). Future climate projections also indicate substantial reshaping of STZs, with 51-88% of Brazil's land area expected to experience mismatches between current and future seed zones. The creation of Brazil's first STZs provides a scalable framework to guide seed sourcing for restoration, aligning supply with demand and future-proofing projects to deliver lasting benefits for biodiversity, climate and society.

1. Crop herbivory by arthropods poses a major threat to food production, particularly in tropical regions. Leaf-cutter ants are key herbivores in the Neotropics and can threaten major crops like cacao. High tree diversity in agroforestry systems can mitigate their impact. As ecosystem engineers, leaf-cutter ants modify soil conditions through nest construction and the accumulation of organic matter. It is essential to understand the trade-offs between services and disservices generated by leaf-cutter ants in agroforestry and to identify biodiversity-friendly strategies to manage the damage they cause. 2. We assessed leaf-cutter ant nest occurrence and herbivory on cacao trees in 13 cacao agroforests in the northern Peruvian Amazon in relation to local canopy structure and landscape tree cover. Specifically, we evaluated whether potential soil fertility benefits could offset herbivory damage and conducted a leaf-preference experiment to identify alternative resource trees within these agroforests. 3. Our results show that agroforests with higher canopy cover host more leaf-cutter ant nests. However, herbivory in cacao agroforests is generally low and can be managed effectively. Herbivory concentrated on trees near the nest, reaching up to 89% of affected leaves, but dropped below 10% at a 15 m distance. Agroforests with higher landscape tree cover (similar to 80%) showed reduced herbivory rates, underscoring the importance of conserving and enhancing landscape tree cover. Moreover, the leaf-preference experiment showed that common agroforest trees, like papaya or orange, are preferred by leaf-cutter ants over cacao. This suggests that intercropping these alternative trees can help dilute herbivory pressure on cacao while providing additional food and income for farmers. Finally, soil nutrient concentrations near the nests were unexpectedly low, suggesting that soil enrichment from ant nests occurs at greater soil depths and highlighting the need for vertical soil profiling. 4. Synthesis and applications. Our findings provide practical guidance for agroforestry management by demonstrating that intercropping with selected species can mitigate damage from leaf-cutter ants in cacao agroforests. At the landscape scale, high tree cover was associated with low herbivory rates, emphasising the need to maintain or restore forested habitats. Integrating local and landscape management can support more resilient and productive cacao agroforestry systems.

Agricultural expansion threatens biodiversity in Amazonian landscapes. Cacao agroforests can support multifunctional bat assemblages, which are sensitive to landscape-level agricultural intensification and may provide information for the development of land-use policies in the Amazon. We assessed how landscape structure around cacao agroforests affected aerial insectivorous bats and phyllostomid bats (mainly frugivores) and how cropland expansion or reforestation may affect future bat diversity. We recorded aerial insectivores and captured phyllostomids in 28 cacao agroforests in two neighboring regions in the Peruvian Amazon that differ in the proportion of remaining forest and intensified cropland, and analyzed their taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic responses to current and future landscape structure. Aerial insectivore activity (an abundance surrogate) and feeding buzzes (a foraging activity indicator) decreased with increasing cropland cover in the non-intensive region only, highlighting the higher vulnerability of these assemblages to cropland expansion. Aerial insectivore phylogenetic diversity, but not functional diversity, decreased with landscape tree cover loss in the non-intensive region. Lower tree cover resulted in higher abundances of dominant frugivores in both regions, while higher edge density was associated with more insect-eating phyllostomids. Frugivore abundance decreased with increasing cropland cover in the intensive region. Our results predicted fewer feeding buzzes and insect-eating phyllsotomids under ongoing deforestation, potentially impacting bat-mediated pest control. Deforestation may also reduce frugivore Simpson diversity in the non-intensive region. Limiting monoculture expansion and restoring landscape tree cover could mitigate taxonomic and phylogenetic homogenization of bat assemblages and the loss of potential ecosystem functions in Amazonian agricultural areas.

Predicting which non-native plant species will become established and where is critical for conserving and managing biodiversity. Theory suggests that the mycorrhizal strategy of non-native plants may predict their establishment success. Here we combine a global dataset of 440,788 vegetation plots with data on plant native status and mycorrhizal type to assess mycorrhizal strategy of non-native plants. The mycorrhizal strategy of non-native plants varies strongly across biomes. Across grassland and desert biomes, non-native species are more frequently non-mycorrhizal than native species, whereas in other biomes non-native species are more likely to be mycorrhizal, most commonly arbuscular-mycorrhizal. Disturbance type and intensity are key predictors of mycorrhizal strategy of non-native species, as mycorrhizal species are favoured by landscape modification and non-mycorrhizal species by natural and human-caused disturbance events. Facultatively mycorrhizal species are consistently under-represented among non-native plants compared with natives, suggesting that symbiotic flexibility does not confer an advantage for non-natives as previously expected. Our study shows that non-native mycorrhizal strategy varies across biogeographical contexts and disturbance, highlighting the need for region-specific prevention and management approaches to plant species introductions.

Colombia is an emerging frontier in fine-flavour cacao production, but its potential is threatened by climate change. This study assesses climate-driven shifts in suitability for commercially cultivated and wild cacao using a combination of different ensemble habitat suitability models (i.e. ensemble-of-ensemble models). To guide the sourcing of planting material and zone-specific adaptation measures, suitable areas were categorized into ecogeographical zones with similar environmental conditions. To identify populations that may harbour climate change–tolerant genotypes, an outlier analysis was carried out to pinpoint localities at the margins of cacao’s environmental niche. For commercially cultivated cacao, the ensemble models predict that around 20

Agricultural expansion and intensification are major drivers of biodiversity loss, particularly in tropical regions. Cacao agroforestry systems can both support and benefit from high levels of biodiversity via associated pest control services from birds and bats, although their potential to do so likely depends on local management and the landscape context. However, how interactions between local-scale agroforestry practices and landscape-scale habitat features shape bird and bat communities in these systems remains poorly understood. We studied birds and bats in 28 smallholder cacao agroforests in the Peruvian Amazon, comparing two regions with contrasting levels of agricultural intensification. We analyzed how local tree diversity and canopy cover interact with surrounding landscape tree cover and regional agricultural intensity to influence species richness and community composition. Results showed that local tree diversity increased bird richness, but only in the intensively farmed region. Local canopy cover had contrasting effects: it negatively impacted bird richness, abundance, and bat activity in more open landscapes (<55 % tree cover), but positively in forested landscapes (>80 % tree cover). Notably, these interactions were significant when considering the landscape tree cover at small spatial scales (250 m), but not at 500 m or 1000 m. Our findings highlight the importance of adapting cacao agroforestry management to the surrounding landscape. Retaining high local canopy cover supports flying vertebrate diversity and associated ecosystem services in forested landscapes, while restoration of landscape tree cover could enhance bird and bat populations that may contribute to pest suppression services in deforested areas.

Ecosystem restoration is key to jointly address the biodiversity, climate, and social inequality crises. In Brazil, large-scale seed-based restoration is gaining momentum, but a national framework to match seed sources with planting sites is still lacking, undermining long-term success. We developed the first Seed Transfer Zones (STZs) for Brazil using 25 environmental variables. We assessed restoration supply and demand within each STZ and projected the zones into the future under contrasting climate change scenarios. We identified 48 STZs, distributed across Brazil’s six major vegetation regions (Amazon, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Caatinga, Pantanal, and Pampa). Overlaying the STZs with data on seed collection capacity and restoration opportunities revealed priority regions where seed supply is unlikely to meet demand (e.g., Cerrado). Future climate projections also indicate substantial reshaping of STZs, with 51–88% of Brazil’s land area expected to experience mismatches between current and future seed zones. The creation of Brazil’s first STZs provides a scalable framework to guide seed sourcing for restoration, aligning supply with demand, and future-proofing projects to deliver lasting benefits for biodiversity, climate, and society. Tens of millions of hectares of degraded land in Brazil are in need of ecosystem restoration to achieve national and global biodiversity and climate goals. Sowing genetically diverse native seeds is key to restoring degraded lands to climate-resilient landscapes, but we still lack guidance on how to effectively match seed sources to restoration sites across broad geographic scales, within the context of a changing climate. We addressed this by identifying 48 Seed Transfer Zones (STZs) based on current and expected future climatic conditions. These zones will help ensure that the right seeds are used in the right places, enabling more effective and climate-smart restoration for nature and people.

1. Yields of tropical tree crops decline with time, often forcing smallholders to establish new deforestation-derived plantations. Consequently, alternative strategies reconciling crop yield and biodiversity conservation are essential. Grafting is a common propagation method to boost yield in crops as cacao, but it alters tree structure potentially affecting associated insect diversity. 2. We investigated how grafting affects cacao yield and biodiversity, modulated by local management and landscape, that is shade-tree cover and distance to nearest forest. Within nine organic agroforests in Peru, we monitored the number of pods yielded over 2 years by similar to 190 trees per plot, and compared production levels with non-grafted trees. We collected arthropods on 54 trees shortly after grafting and replicated surveys in the dry and rainy season, with standardized diurnal and nocturnal inspection of tree branches. We expected grafting would increase yield after a brief gap, while the arthropod community associated with freshly grafted cacao would differ from that of full-grown cacao trees. 3. Cacao grafting increased yields after 2 years by an average of 45% more than adjacent non-grafted trees. Compared to non-grafted trees, arthropod abundance was 25% lower 3 months after grafting and 12% lower after 6 months, indicating a recovery of arthropod communities shortly after grafting. Similar patterns were observed for species richness (22% and 12%) and Hill-Shannon diversity (18% and 13%). Abundance of phytophagous insects (mainly aphids) was unchanged with grafting. However, we found 46% fewer beetles and 39% fewer predatory arthropods (mainly spiders) on young-but not old-grafted cacao, indicating a possible decrease in pest control services by predatory arthropods at early grafting stages. 4. We observed richer, more diverse, but less abundant arthropods during nocturnal surveys than on diurnal surveys. Arthropods were richer, more abundant and diverse in the rainy season than in the dry season. Increasing shade-tree cover decreased arthropod diversity but did not affect species richness or abundance. Shorter distances from forest decreased richness and diversity, but not abundance, possibly due to higher pressure from vertebrate predators nearby forests. 5. Synthesis and applications. Grafting is a successful approach for rejuvenating old, unproductive cacao trees, enhancing smallholder income opportunities and thus reducing pressure for new deforestation-based plantations. Grafting briefly reduced arthropod abundance and diversity, but recovered in a short time. Hence, rejuvenation of cacao trees by grafting should be promoted and implemented as a promising strategy for more sustainable social-ecological cacao management, with economic and ecological benefits for smallholders.

Climate change is expected to impact cacao cultivation in Ecuador, the fifth largest cacao producing country in the world and largest exporter of fine flavour cacao. The objective of this study was to evaluate the future impact of climate change on the suitable distribution of cultivated and wild cacao and identify areas where climate change tolerant genotypes may occur in Ecuador. Using 26,152 presence points for cultivated cacao and 95 presence points for wild cacao, we modelled the present suitability distribution of cultivated and wild cacao and performed future climate projections under two greenhouse gas emission scenarios (SSP2-4.5 and SSP3-7.0) and two time periods (2050s and 2070s). For both cultivated and wild cacao, we constructed six different ensemble models employing different filtering methods for presence points, we projected each ensemble model to future climatic conditions, and we then built the final maps of present distribution and future projections based on the majority-vote criterion. Our future projections predict a 8–16

Biodiversity in all its dimensions is being threatened by climate change and the impact of human activities. Genetic diversity is a key dimension of biodiversity underlying adaptation to global changes. Here we assess the impact of climate change on plant genetic diversity in a region located in the southernmost portion of Argentina and Chile range. We compiled available published research on population genetics of 22 plant species from forests, monte and steppe ecoregions and modelled the impact of future climates on their suitability distributions. Based on our results, 7 out of 22 species are predicted to lose more than 50% of their current suitable areas being the average loss across all species 40% (SSP 126) and 45% (SSP370). Several hotspots where species richness and genetic diversity overlap are located in areas that are predicted to become unsuitable, particularly in northern Patagonia, Argentina. Along the Arid Diagonal, some steppe and monte species are predicted to lose areas. Stable areas, on the other hand, were identified, to the west and south of the Andes, thus offering opportunities to preserve the genetic variants that might be critical for adaptation. Although higher temperatures will be threatening in the future, some of the areas we identify might act as promising natural refuges for southern South America flora, as long as appropriate conservation and management policies of the genetic resources are being implemented.

Plant diversity has long been linked to an increase in ecosystem productivity and function, but concrete examples in which ecosystem services are linked to diversity at the scale at which management decisions are taken are rare. We specifically tested for a correlation between plant diversity and provisioning ecosystem services estimated via the potential to produce meat and wool. We also tested whether higher levels of plant diversity conferred higher levels of ecosystem resistance to global change drivers, measured as the ability to sustain productivity across time. This was achieved by analyzing the interactive effects of a range of environmental variables on annual net primary production in a network of long-term biodiversity plots in Southern Patagonia. We found evidence of a positive correlation between plant diversity and plant productivity, which we relate to the ability to produce wool and meat from livestock. We also found evidence of a link between ecosystem resistance and diversity, though the effect was modest. The instrumental (economic) valuation presented doesn't account for the full range of values that rangeland in southern Patagonia generates. Nevertheless, these calculations do provide a starting point for broadening the discussion around the importance and value of natural capital in southern Patagonia. The results are consistent with theory and suggest that plant diversity has instrumental and monetary value as well as insurance value that may increase the resistance of rangeland ecosystems to global change drivers.

AbstractDiversity and functionality of bird communities in tropical agroforests are shaped by their surrounding landscape, particularly the extent and type of natural forest. However, most evidence comes from tropical rainforest landscapes, whereas the bearing of such trends in other forest types remains understudied. We compared functional and beta diversity of bird communities in 23 cacao agroforests embedded in landscapes of two contrasting Peruvian regions: seasonally‐dry tropical forests and subtropical rainforests from the Andean foothills. Strong climatic seasonality affects both landscapes, but forest vegetation structure and complexity differ. We found higher bird species richness (n = 179 spp) and higher species turnover in the subtropical forest than in the dry forest landscape (n = 64 spp). Only in the dry forest landscape, distance from forest increased dissimilarity driven by species loss, that is, the nestedness component of beta diversity. This points to the importance of conserving dry tropical forests within the broader landscape matrix, with known benefits for pest control and cacao yield. Functional diversity indices were not influenced by forest distance in either landscape, but the proportion of insects in birds' diet decreased by 27% along a 1 km distance gradient from forest in the subtropical forest landscape. In the dry forest landscape, however, it decreased by only 3% across the same distance gradient. Far from forest (≥1 km), forest specialization decreased by ~33% and 20% in the subtropical and dry forest landscapes, respectively. These differences indicate that regionally‐adapted agroforest management is paramount for conserving bird diversity and ecosystem services as pest control. Procuring high‐canopy shade trees and adequate microhabitats for insectivorous species is essential to maintain biocontrol services in the subtropical forest. Conversely, in the dry forest enhancing low‐canopy vegetation with a focus on frugivores and ensuring forest closeness to agroforests may maximize bird diversity and their ecosystem services. A complete version of this article is translated to Spanish in the supplements.

Persistent gender inequalities challenge theory and praxis of community-based collective action. Here we adopt an innovative approach which integrates environmental justice, value chain inclusion and collective action theory to diagnose inequalities in community-based organizations (CBOs) and identify strategies to address them. Drawing on the findings of case studies conducted at six CBOs in Peru’s cacao sector, this article aims to make three contributions. Empirically, we analyze the current situation of, barriers to and strategies for environmental justice for women in the six selected CBOs. Theoretically, we contribute to theory on community-based collective action through an analysis of environmental justice and value chain inclusion. Methodologically, we propose a framework that analysts may use to assess environmental justice for women in community-based collective action. Results show that overall, women participate less and benefit less from cacao CBOs. Furthermore, recognition of women’s contributions and capabilities for cacao value creation tend to remain limited. We discuss 18 strategies and recommendations through which CBOs can address gender inequality for their female stakeholders on a cooperative, community, household and individual level. Most salient recommendations include workshops, generating income opportunities for women, increasing the rights of partners of official cooperative members, and introducing quotas for women in leadership positions. If such efforts are reinforced and better theorized, and gender strategies continuously implemented, CBOs such as cacao cooperatives have the potential to improve the environmental justice outcomes for women within their organizations, families, and communities at large.

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in the Amazon has degraded tropical forests and escalated mercury (Hg) pollution, affecting biodiversity, ecological processes and rural livelihoods. In the Peruvian Amazon, ASGM annually releases some 181 tons of Hg into the environment. Despite some recent advances in understanding the spatial distribution of Hg within gold mine spoils and the surrounding landscape, temporal dynamics in Hg movement are not well understood. We aimed to reveal spatio-temporal trends of soil Hg in areas degraded by ASGM.,. We analyzed soil and sediment samples during the dry and rainy seasons across 14 ha of potentially contaminated sites and natural forests, in the vicinities of the Native community of San Jacinto in Madre de Dios, Peru. Soil Hg levels of areas impacted by ASGM (0.02 ± 0.02 mg kg-1) were generally below soil environmental quality standards (6.60 mg kg-1). However, they showed high variability, mainly explained by the type of natural cover vegetation, soil organic matter (SOM), clay and sand particles. Temporal trends in Hg levels in soils between seasons differed between landscape units distinguished in the mine spoils. During the rainy season, Hg levels decreased up to 45.5% in uncovered soils, while in artificial pond sediments Hg increased by up to 961%. During the dry season, uncovered degraded soils were more prone to lose Hg than sites covered by vegetation, mainly due to higher soil temperatures and concomitantly increasing volatilization. Soils from natural forests and degraded soil covered by regenerating vegetation showed a high capacity to retain Hg mainly due to the higher plant biomass, higher SOM, and increasing concentrations of clay particles. Disturbingly, our findings suggest high Hg mobility from gold mine spoil to close by sedimentary materials, mainly in artificial ponds through alluvial deposition and pluvial lixiviation. Thus, further research is needed on monitoring, and remediation of sediments in artificial to design sustainable land use strategies.

Enhancing water use efficiency in urban green spaces is an increasing concern in hyper-arid megacities. Here we aimed to compare the efficacy of species selection vs. soil management as strategies for reducing water demand of ornamental trees in irrigated green spaces of the city of Lima, Peru. We compared the performance of a popular exotic shrub used as a living fence in Lima’s green spaces with an alternative native species when grown in soils with or without biochar at different levels of soil water availability. Plant water stress and mortality were measured over 6-months. The native species outperformed the exotic in terms of resistance to water stress and suffered less mortality at low levels of soil water. The addition of biochar did not significantly enhance the leaf water potential. Its concluded that improved selection of species could significantly augment water use efficiency in urban green spaces in Lima and beyond.

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is an extinction risk assessment tool that has guided species conservation over the last five decades. However, as wildlife scientists and conservationists, we argue that its influence on the global conservation agenda can hinder effective species conservation efforts. Here, we review the limitations of the Red List and its misuse in priority setting, which can overlook local and regional contexts. This can result in improper allocation of conservation resources, especially in the Global South, where financial resources are limited. In particular, funds directed towards red-listed species may fail to address a broader range of conservation priorities. We also contend that extinction risk is insufficient for guiding conservation efforts and recommend broadening conservation planning and decision-making beyond reliance on the Red List. Thus, for a more inclusive and decentralized approach, we summarize guidelines for guiding species conservation at appropriate ecological, spatial, and taxonomic scales. Finally, we encourage more collaborative efforts and stakeholder engagement for the setting of conservation priorities and efficient funding allocation.