The performance of detection dogs relies on their ability to detect and alert to variations of the stimuli upon which they have been trained. As such, research has tended to focus on understanding the likelihood of generalising beyond a trained stimulus set. However, it remains unclear which stimuli dogs perceive as the ‘same’ or ‘different’ to others. Understanding this perception would allow the creation of appropriate training aids to improve the performance of working dogs. The aim of this study was to establish whether dogs were capable of same-different concept learning with odours and whether they could generalise this learning to a novel stimulus set. Dogs were presented with two odours simultaneously and trained to give one indication behaviour if the samples were the same, and an alternative indication if they were different. Four of the ten dogs tested were able to meet the learning criteria, indicating that they could learn the task with the training stimuli. However, none were able to generalise the concept to a new stimulus set. The failure of the dogs to generalise the same-different learning to novel stimuli suggests that the procedure used, while showing some promise, may not be the best approach to assess how dogs perceive odours in relation to each other.

Many plant populations are dependent on animal-mediated seed dispersal; however, in the study of mutualistic processes, animals are generally thought of as unselective consumers. This approach is problematic as it does not consider the decisions of the foraging animals, and little attention is given to the cognitive processes that underpin these behaviors. One such process is the ability to predict fruit availability, as this would allow animals to direct their foraging towards productive food sources and would ensure rapid seed removal when fruits are ready to be eaten. This is particularly important for species that cannot move rapidly between resources, such as tortoises. This study investigated temporal (24-h cycle) and visual cues use during food anticipation in captive red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonaria), an important seed disperser in its natural environment. A significant increase in activity was observed in the hour immediately preceding food delivery, suggesting that the tortoises learned to predict the availability of food. Test trials, in which the visual and temporal cues were put in conflict or removed, revealed that the tortoises used both sources of information to predict food availability. Moreover, extinction trials, in which the tortoises did not have reliable temporal or visual cues prior to feeding, resulted in a rapid loss of anticipatory behavior. These findings provide insights into the cognitive processes that control anticipatory foraging behavior and, as such, have important implications for both animal and plant fitness, furthering our knowledge of mutualistic services such as seed dispersal.

Environmental enrichment has been shown to be an effective way to improve the welfare of captive animals. Although many studies have investigated the effects of enrichment on mammalian and avian species, there is comparatively little known about this in reptiles. Reptiles are now frequently kept as pets, with bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) being one of the most popular species-it is therefore important to understand how housing conditions impact their welfare. In the current study we investigated the effect of different housing conditions (Standard vs. two types of Enriched enclosure: Non-naturalistic and Naturalistic) on the behaviour and welfare of bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). The lizards (n = 12) were housed in each condition for a period of four weeks (balanced for order), with behavioural observations conducted throughout. Their affective state was also assessed using anxiety tests (novel environment and novel object tests) at the end of the four weeks. After experiencing all of the housing conditions, the lizards were given three pairwise preference tests where they could choose between the different enclosures. Bearded dragons housed in Enriched enclosure exhibited significantly higher activity levels, with increased movement and reduced basking and resting compared to those in the Standard enclosure. Additionally, individuals in Standard housing engaged in more behaviours associated with stress (e.g. interaction with a glass barrier and tongue touching). In the anxiety tests, animals from Enriched enclosures displayed greater confidence, approaching novel objects more frequently and showed a trend towards spending more time in the arena's inner section, while also exhibiting fewer tongue-touch behaviours. Preference tests further revealed a significant preference for Enriched over Standard enclosures, and for the Naturalistic over the Non-naturalistic enriched enclosure. These findings suggest that providing environmental enrichment increases behaviours linked with good welfare while reducing those associated with stress and is preferred by the animals themselves. Housing reptiles in enriched environments is therefore important in order to enhance their welfare in captivity.

Abstract Detection dogs are required to search for and alert to specific odours of interest, such as drugs, cadavers, disease markers and explosives. However, the odour released from different samples of the same target substance will vary for a number of reasons, including the production method, evaporation, degradation, or by being mixed with extraneous odours. Generalisation, the tendency to respond in the same manner to stimuli which are different – but similar to – a conditioned stimulus, is therefore a crucial requirement for working detection dogs. Odour is a complex modality which poses unique challenges in terms of reliably predicting generalisation, when compared with auditory or visual stimuli. The primary aim of this review is to explore recent advances in our understanding of generalisation and the factors that influence it, and to consider these in light of detection dog training methods currently used in the field. We identify potential risks associated with certain training practices, and highlight areas where research is lacking and which warrant further investigation.

There is increasing recognition that a dog’s relationship with its owner is a form of attachment bond with similarities to the human infant-carer bond. However, it seems less recognised that infant attachment style is typically a response to parental caregiving style, i.e., the style of caregiving by the dog’s owner may play an important role in the development of the attachment style of a dog. We therefore aimed to develop a reliable owner-response-based instrument to assess behaviour directed towards their dogs, focused on different ‘parental’ caregiving styles which give rise to four forms of attachment in the child (Secure, Ambivalent, Avoidant and Disorganised), and compare the relationship between these styles and behaviour problems in dogs. A questionnaire with 40 items (7-point Likert scale) based on the four styles of caregiving was made available online where dog owners were asked to show how much they agreed with each item and report if their dogs had behaviour problems. A total of 982 participants answered the questionnaire and Principal component analysis and other validation methods were conducted. Owners whose dogs were not reported having any behaviour problem were compared with those who reported different behaviour problems in their dogs by Multinomial Generalised Linear Model. Results showed good validity (item reliability, face and content validity, and convergent and discriminant validity) for the new caregiving questionnaire for dog owners (Lincoln Owner Caregiving Questionnaire, LOCQ) which is composed by three Caregiving style dimensions: Ambivalent, Avoidant and Disorganised. Additionally, it was found that having a high score in the Disorganised and/or Avoidant caregiving styles significantly predicted the presence of some problem behaviours in a dog. Specifically, compared to owners of dogs without behaviour problems, owners with high scores for the Disorganised caregiving style predicted dogs with separation related problems or with more than one behaviour problem, owners with high Avoidant caregiving style scores predicted dogs with Fear, and owners with high scores for both Disorganised and Avoidant caregiving styles predicted dogs with Aggressivity problems. Hence, we have developed a reliable tool for evaluating dog owner caregiving style based on Attachment theory and showed its relationship with problem behaviour. Although causal relationships cannot be inferred, these results will be highly valuable when evaluating and developing treatment for behaviour problems in dogs, and to improve the welfare of dogs and their owners.

Many animals transmit information in the form of chemical signals to modify behavior or induce physiological change in receivers. For some taxa, such as species in the order Carnivora, chemical signals are known to provide a critical mode of communication, although they are still poorly understood compared to other signal modalities. Here, we review the literature to identify and categorize potential chemical signals within the Carnivora with a view to determining commonalities based on sex, taxon, and function. Data were drawn from 112 publications, dating from 1896 to 2021. Of the 1,532 discrete chemicals identified, 169 were detected in > 5 species, with 58 found in ≥ 10 species. However, multiple different names were often used to report the same compound, reducing the transparency of the literature. Two hundred and fifty-two chemicals were identified as biomarkers, i.e. associated with specific behavioral contexts (dominance hierarchy, appeasement, agonistic, etc.) or specific demographic traits (age, sex, etc.). Few studies established a causal link between these biomarkers and behavioral or physiological changes, so only a few could be definitively described as behaviorally functional bioactive signals. We found high variability concerning which species, chemicals, and sources were represented in the literature, which could potentially lead to a perceptual bias in the relative importance of certain chemicals. Finally, we propose a method for standardized reporting of chemical signals and suggest that future work should focus on a more consistent expansion of the range of species, products, and chemical types analyzed so that the phylogenetic relationship of chemical signals across taxa can be determined.

There is growing interest in how the complex assembly of microorganisms (the microbiome) in an animal's gut influences various aspects of the host's health, physiology, and behaviour. However, the microbiome itself is shaped by a range of factors and so the direction of causal effects is difficult to determine. Given growing interest in the interaction between the microbiome and behaviour in dogs, we sought to provide a rapid and accessible introduction to the topic, focused on key concepts and considerations. We start by critically reviewing the scientific literature on the factors affecting the composition of the gut microbiome in dogs. This provides the context for our subsequent assessment of studies that have specifically examined the relationship between the gut microbiome and behavioural traits and related cognitive capabilities in dogs. Emerging evidence suggests a link between gut microbiome composition and behavioural and cognitive outcomes, including anxiety, stress responses, and learning abilities. However, given the relative immaturity of this field, there is little replication and studies are not easily comparable. Accordingly, specific associations and mechanistic explanations need to be treated with caution at this time. Our findings underscore the need for comprehensive, standardised research methodologies, including data sharing, and the need for consistent reporting that clearly recognises and acknowledges the wide range of influential factors (and thus limitations) in proposed control/reference populations. Therefore, claims relating to the influence of the gut-brain axis in dogs need to carefully expressed and nuanced.

Functional specialization of the brain hemispheres has been observed across the animal kingdom, with the left hemisphere being associated with positive emotions while the right hemisphere is associated with negative emotions. In vertebrates, contralateral eye use is indicative of which brain hemisphere is being used for processing and so may therefore reveal affective state. Using a within-subjects design, we investigated whether lateralized eye use could be used as a non-invasive welfare indicator in captive-bred lizards (Pogona vitticeps) housed in standard or enriched enclosures for four weeks. Eye use was recorded during basking, a key maintenance behaviour. We found that when lizards were housed in standard enclosures (an environment associated with reduced welfare) they exhibited significantly greater use of their left eye (right brain hemisphere) compared to when they were housed in enriched enclosures (an environment associated with improved welfare). These findings suggest that the negative affective state induced by housing conditions is reflected in lateralized eye use, making this a promising, non-invasive tool for assessing animal welfare that is likely to be of value across vertebrate species.

Substantial evidence demonstrates the benefits of environmental enrichment in mammals and birds. However, far less is known about this topic in reptiles—an increasingly popular group of pets. This study compared the effects of housing conditions (Standard vs. Enriched) on the behaviour and welfare of captive leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius). Within the Enriched housing condition, two different enrichment conditions were assessed: Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic. Geckos (N=6) individually experienced each of the three housing conditions for four weeks. Welfare was assessed by observing the behaviour of the geckos within their enclosure, followed by behavioural tests of anxiety (e.g., novel environment and object tests) at the end of the four weeks. The animals were then switched to the next housing condition, with order counterbalanced across individuals. This was repeated for all housing conditions, after which the geckos were given a preference test. Results revealed that when geckos were housed in Enriched enclosures, they exhibited a range of behaviours indicative of improved welfare (e.g., spent more time lying in the water bowl and less time interacting with barriers) compared to when housed in Standard conditions. However, we observed no differences in behavioural expression between the Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic enriched enclosures. Although we observed no differences between Enriched and Standard housing conditions in the behavioural tests of anxiety, in the preference test, when given a choice between the three housing conditions, the geckos displayed a strong preference for the Naturalistic enriched enclosure. Overall, our findings suggest that enriched housing conditions improved the welfare of leopard geckos. Therefore, we recommend that geckos should be housed in enriched enclosures with, where possible, the inclusion of naturalistic features.

Detection dogs are required to learn and alert to multiple different odors during training and to generalize this learning to similar odors when working. They should be both sensitive to variation in the target odors and specific enough to avoid false alerts, but how readily they achieve this is likely to depend on the training method employed. The majority of agencies train by presenting single target odors in isolation, and adding additional odors consecutively, although recent research with rats suggests intermixing the target odors concurrently throughout training may be a more effective approach. This study therefore tested the relative efficacy of intermixed training in dogs. Using an odor-detection lineup, pet dogs were trained to detect two target odors, A and B. Those allocated to the "sequential" group were trained to criterion on odor A and then trained on odor B (or vice versa), the "compound" group were trained on a mixture of AB, and the "intermixed" group trained on A and B concurrently. Each dog was then tested on all combinations of the test stimuli (A, B, and AB), as well as combinations containing a novel interferent (AC, BC, and ABC). Results revealed that dogs trained by the intermixed method made significantly more correct (true positive) indications, and significantly fewer miss (false negative) indications than the other two methods, suggesting that intermixed training is more effective than currently used alternative training methods. Thus, for improved performance and generalization, we recommend detection dog training should use an intermixed method of training. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) within the national security sector is increasing, yet traditional Technology Readiness Level (TRL) assessments fall short in evaluating the maturity of AI-enabled systems. Challenges specific to AI, such as alignment, explainability, and control, complicate the assessment of technical risk using the TRL framework. To address this gap, we introduce an AI Readiness Level (AIRL) framework, modified from TRL, to better evaluate the risk and readiness of AI systems in national security. The AIRL framework focuses on five key criteria: alignment, justified confidence, governance, human readiness level (HRL), and data readiness level (DRL). By assessing these dimensions, AIRL identifies minimum standards for deployment, areas for improvement, and technical risks. We apply the AIRL framework to hypothetical AI systems, revealing that despite high TRL ratings, these systems often fall short in critical AI-specific areas. AIRL offers program managers guidance on advancing AI systems to higher readiness levels, with a focus on improving alignment, transparency, governance, user interfaces, and data management. The framework provides valuable insights for policymakers, developers, and operators to ensure AI solutions meet ethical and performance standards in government operations.

Coloured patches of skin are seen across the animal kingdom and serve multiple functions. For many species, carotenoid pigments are often incorporated into the skin, hair or feathers and feature prominently in colourful signals used as sexual signals. Most animals cannot synthesise carotenoids de novo and, as a result, carotenoid-based signals have long been considered indicators of individual quality. We identified and quantified the carotenoids within the eye combs of black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. We found that black grouses incorporate two ketocarotenoids, astaxanthin and canthaxanthin, into their eye combs in different proportions depending on total eye comb size, with individuals with smaller combs incorporating significantly more canthaxanthin than astaxanthin. Additionally, a higher ratio of astaxanthin to canthaxanthin significantly decreased brightness, but was positively associated with both the λUV peak and the λR peak. The results found here highlight the need to also consider the additional effects of tissue structure on carotenoid, and overall colouration.

Colourful signals have long been implicated as indicators of individual quality in animals. Bare-skin signals are an understudied aspect of avian colouration compared with plumage studies, despite displaying rapid changes in size and colour in response to different environmental or physiological stressors. Even fewer studies have focused on the underlying histology of these structures and the importance this plays in the resulting skin colour. Using the Black Grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), we identified the underlying structure of individual dermal spikes, which make up the red supra-orbital comb (a known integumentary signal of male quality), and highlight visual structural differences between combs of different sizes. In addition, we used Raman spectroscopy to indicate the presence of carotenoids within the tissue, something that had previously only been inferred through characteristic reflectance patterns. An increased understanding of the structural basis of colour of featherless parts of the skin opens up exciting new avenues for interpreting the information content of integumentary signals.

Accurately quantifying an animal’s movement is crucial for developing a greater empirical and theoretical understanding of its behaviour, and for simulating biologically plausible movement patterns. However, we have a relatively poor understanding of how animals move at fine temporal scales and in three-dimensional environments. Here, we collected high temporal resolution data on the three-dimensional spatial positions of individual three-spined sticklebacks ( Gasterosteus aculeatus ), allowing us to derive statistics describing key geometric characteristics of their movement and to quantify the extent to which this varies between individuals. We then used these statistics to develop a simple model of fish movement and evaluated the biological plausibility of simulated movement paths using a Turing-type test, which quantified the association preferences of live fish towards animated conspecifics following either ‘real’ (i.e., based on empirical measurements) or simulated movements. Live fish showed no difference in their response to ‘real’ movement compared to movement simulated by the model, although significantly preferred modelled movement over putatively unnatural movement patterns. The model therefore has the potential to facilitate a greater understanding of the causes and consequences of individual variation in movement, as well as enabling the construction of agent-based models or real-time computer animations in which individual fish move in biologically feasible ways.

There are numerous examples of Batesian mimics that only imperfectly resemble their models. Given that inaccurate mimics are known to be predated more frequently than accurate ones, imperfect mimicry therefore poses something of a conundrum. One putative explanation, the relaxed selection hypothesis, predicts that when the cost of attacking a model is high relative to the benefit of consuming a mimic, selection against imperfect mimics will be relaxed, allowing mimics to be more imperfect for a given level of fitness. However, empirical support for this hypothesis is equivocal. Here, we report an experimental test of the relaxed selection hypothesis, in which human participants were tasked with discriminating between artificial stimuli representing models and mimics. In response to "attacking" a model (i.e., misclassifying it as palatable, or non-aversive) they received either a mild electric shock (high cost) or vibratory feedback (low cost). Consistent with the predictions of this hypothesis, we found that when the cost of attacking a model was high, mimetic phenotype could deviate more from the model (i.e., be more imperfect) for a given level of fitness than when the cost of attacking a model was low. Moreover, when the cost of attacking a model was high, participants showed an increased latency to attack. This finding shows that given sufficient costs, the relaxed selection hypothesis is a plausible explanation for the evolution of imperfect mimicry.

When observed in their preferred environments, animals display behavioural changes, such as an increase in resting or a reduction in agonism, suggestive of positive affect and improved welfare. However, most studies focus on the behaviour of individuals or, at most, pairs of animals; even though in group-living animals beneficial environmental changes may impact on how the group behaves as a whole. In this study, we investigated whether experiencing a preferred visual environment affected the shoaling behaviour of zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) groups. We first confirmed a group preference for an image of gravel placed underneath the base of a tank compared to a plain white image. Second, we observed replicated groups either with or without the preferred (gravel) image present to determine if a visually enriched and preferred environment could elicit changes in shoaling behaviour. We found a significant interaction between the observation time and test condition, with differences in shoaling behaviour reflective of increased relaxation emerging gradually over time in the gravel condition. The findings of this study reveal that experiencing a preferred environment can alter group behaviour, making such holistic changes valuable as potential indicators of positive welfare.

The Python ecosystem represents a global, data rich, technology-enabled network. By analyzing Python's dependency network, its top 14 most imported libraries and cPython (or core Python) libraries, this research finds clear evidence the Python network can be considered a problem solving network. Analysis of the contributor network of the top 14 libraries and cPython reveals emergent specialization, where experts of specific libraries are isolated and focused while other experts link these critical libraries together, optimizing both local and global information exchange efficiency. As these networks are expanded, the local efficiency drops while the density increases, representing a possible transition point between exploitation (optimizing working solutions) and exploration (finding new solutions). These results provide insight into the optimal functioning of technology-enabled social networks and may have larger implications for the effective functioning of modern organizations.

Odour detection animals are required to learn many individual odours during training. Most organisations and agencies use single-odour (sequential) training, where animals learn one odour followed by another. However, this method may not be optimal for learning or for detecting target odours when they are mixed with other substances, which is an inevitable occurrence when animals are actively deployed in the field. Here, we used a Go/No-Go procedure to investigate the impact of three different training methods upon rats' ability to identify target-odours alone and within mixtures. A sequential group were trained with odour A followed by odour B or vice versa; a compound group were trained with odours AB presented as a single stimulus; and an intermixed group were trained separately on both odours A and B within a session. Following training, all groups were tested for their responses to A, B, and AB, as well as these odours combined with a novel odour C: AC, BC, ABC. Responses to the test stimuli significantly differed between groups (p = 0.002). The intermixed group generalised significantly better than the sequential (p = 0.005) and compound (p = 0.014) groups; and the compound group generalised significantly better than the sequential group (p = 0.023). These findings have important implications for the training of animals used for odour detection. They provide strong evidence that an intermixed training method may be more effective than the generally employed method of sequential single-odour training.