The accelerated decline of tropical Andean glaciers is affecting the water cycle of mountains in the region. In the Cordillera Real (Bolivia) on the Huayna-Potosi peak (6088 m a.s.l.), the rapid retreat of the Oeste Glacier is exposing new rock outcrops and glacial materials. Changes in the hydrological regime by glacier retreat are likely to modify the supply of sediments and subsequently affect the geochemical transfer of particle -bound elements within proglacial and downstream ecosystems. To address this issue, a sampling campaign in the proglacial area of Huayna-Potosi aimed to identify and collect sediments from the primary active landforms. To characterise elemental transfer and identify sediment provenance using fingerprinting techniques, streambed sediments were collected along the main stream from the glacier tongue at 5002 m a.s.l. to a wetland shallow lake at 4700 m a.s. l.. Geomorphological features control the production of fine particles and the distribution of particle -bound geochemical elements. Complex processes of solubilization, mobilisation, and retention govern the elemental transfer. Significant increases in 238 U, as well as some major elements, were observed in the surface lake sediments, while Pb, Cr, and Cu decreased, and 137 Cs was not detected. The spatial distribution patterns of geochemical elements and the assessment of the sediment provenance indicate that deglaciation fosters geochemical processes and the elemental transfer dynamics in the wetlands. Moraines and colluvium were found to be the primary contributors to sediment yield (93 %) while the rich organic soils in swamps contributed the least (7 %). The enhanced supply of sediments to the shallow lake in parallel to glacier decline may affect water quality and bring about further changes in the wetlands. Identifying primary sediment sources is essential for water management. Our findings enhance understanding of the compositional characteristics of mobilised sediment and their variations, aiding in more effective resource management to preserve these high -altitude wetlands.

Globally, metals released by mine waste represent a challenge for protecting water quality and ecosystems. Understanding metal dispersion in catchments is critical for developing efficient remediation strategies and reducing contamination from mining activities. Efforts to address the issue have been constrained by diffuse sources and variation of source contributions across streamflows. In the UK, metal source apportionment is typically addressed using monitoring strategies with low spatial resolution, which can underestimate the contribution of diffuse sources. In this proof-of-concept study, diffuse sources were accurately apportioned in a mining-impacted catchment in Mid-Wales (UK), using a hydrogeochemical approach with combined continuous tracer injections, gulp injections, and streambed sediment geochemistry. The continuous tracer injections identified a major Zn and Pb point source, diffuse sources due to mine waste tip runoff, and potential groundwater contributions. Variations in source contributions were estimated during high and low flow conditions, with Zn having similar sources and importance across streamflows and Pb being released mainly from overground tips during high flow conditions (22% Pb under low flow and 80% Pb under high flow). The distribution of metal-bearing sediment along the stream sheds light on metal release mechanisms across streamflow conditions. This hydrogeochemical approach for source apportionment, builds on common monitoring methods, and represents a substantial advance in accounting diffuse mine contamination sources, understanding potential metal release mechanisms, and designing remediation strategies.

Metal-mining exploitation has caused ecosystem degradation worldwide. Legacy wastes are often concentrated around former mines where monitoring and research works are mostly focused. Geochemical and physical weathering can affect metal-enriched sediment locations and their capacity to release metals at a catchment scale. This study investigated how fluvial geomorphology and soil geochemistry drive zinc and lead dispersion along the Nant Cwmnewyddion (Wales, UK). Sediments from different locations were sampled for geochemical and mineralogical investigations (portable X-ray fluorescence, scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction, and electron microprobe analysis). The suspended sediment fluxes in the streamwater were estimated at different streamflows to quantify the metal dispersion. Topographical and slope analysis allowed us to link sediment erosion with the exposure of primary sulphide minerals in the headwater. Zinc and lead entered the streamwater as aqueous phases or as suspended sediments. Secondary sources were localised in depositional stream areas due to topographical obstruction and a decrease in stream gradient. Sediment zinc and lead concentrations were lower in depositional areas and associated with Fe-oxide or phyllosilicates. Streamwater zinc and lead fluxes highlighted their mobility under high-flow conditions. This multi-disciplinary approach stressed the impact of the headwater mining work on the downstream catchment and provided a low-cost strategy to target sediment sampling via geomorphological observations.

Cryoconite is a specific type of material found on the surface of glaciers and icesheets. Samples of cryoconite were collected from the Orwell Glacier and its moraines, together with suspended sediment from the proglacial stream on Signy Island, part of the South Orkney Islands, Antarctica. The activity concentrations of certain fallout radionuclides were determined in the cryoconite, moraine and suspended sediment, in addition to particle size composition and %C and %N. For cryoconite samples (n = 5), mean activity concentrations (& PLUSMN;1SD) of 137Cs, 210Pbun and 241Am were 13.2 & PLUSMN; 20.9, 66.1 & PLUSMN; 94.0 and 0.32 & PLUSMN; 0.64 Bq kg- 1, respectively. Equivalent values for the moraine samples (n = 7) were 2.56 & PLUSMN; 2.75, 14.78 & PLUSMN; 12.44 and <1.0 Bq kg- 1, respectively. For the composite suspended sediment sample, collected over 3 weeks in the ablation season, the values (& PLUSMN; counting uncertainty) for 137Cs, 210Pbun and 241Am were 2.64 & PLUSMN; 0.88, 49.2 & PLUSMN; 11.9 and <1.0 Bq kg- 1, respectively. Thus, fallout radionuclide activity concentrations were elevated in cryoconite relative to moraine and suspended sediment. In the case of 40K, the highest value was for the suspended sediment (1423 & PLUSMN; 166 Bq kg- 1). The fallout radionuclides in cryoconite were 1-2 orders of magnitude greater than values in soils collected from other locations in Antarctica. This work further demonstrates that cryoconite likely scavenges fallout radionuclides (dissolved and particulate) in glacial meltwater. In the case of 40K, the greater value in suspended sediment implies a subglacial source. These results are amongst the relatively few that demonstrate the presence of fallout radionuclides in cryoconites at remote locations in the Southern Hemisphere. This work adds to the growing contention that elevated activities of fallout radionuclides, and other contaminants, in cryoconites are a global phenomenon and may be a risk to downstream terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Climate change in the Antarctic over the past 50+ years has caused contraction of ice and snow cover, longer melt seasons and intensified glacier melting. These changes affect erosion and sediment redistribution processes that are vital to our understanding of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and sediment input to oceans. This 79 day study of the Orwell Glacier meltwater stream on Signy Island (5 December 2019-21 February 2020) used 5 min recordings of turbidity, stream discharge (Q) and air temperature (AT), supplemented by 454 water samples from which suspended sediment concentration (SSC) was gravimetrically determined, to calculate daily suspended sediment loads (SSLs). Q(mean) was 47.8 +/- 3.5 l s(-1), SSCmean was 71.0 +/- 15.9 mg l(-1) and daily SSLmean was 75 +/- 8 kg day(-1) with a suspended sediment yield of 43.6 t km(-2) yr(-1). A multiple regression model predicted SSLs reliably (multiple r = 0.95, r(2) = 0.91, n = 79) and, when run with AT(mean) + 1 degrees C (expected on Signy Island by 2060) and AT(mean) + 2 degrees C (expected by 2100) scenarios, the model predicted 7% and 13% increases in SSLs, respectively. The SSLs estimated in this study are low when compared with others from around the world.

Research in outdoor education and more specifically on wilderness expeditions has almost exclusively focused on short-term benefits (<5yrs) despite their findings suggesting these are “life-changing” experiences. This study examined long-term outcomes (40 years later) of three (month-long) adventurous school expeditions to mainland Europe, by staff and pupils from a high school (11- to 16-year-olds) in Scotland in the 1970s. The investigation was initiated by a call for life stories from 45 participants, followed by 10 interviews at a school reunion. The interviews revealed a transference of learning qualities attributed to the expedition, indicating a long-term impact on participants’ personal and/or professional lives, with individuals still drawing upon their expedition experiences some 40 years later. Significant themes emerging were planning and preparation, confidence, and feelings of gratefulness, which led to participants wanting to undertake service that contributes back into society for young peoples’ benefit. This study adds to the knowledge of long-range educational outcomes from school expeditions.

Journeys and expeditions are an important practice in outdoor and environmental education which often get overlooked or may be under-valued. The benefits of journeys and expeditions are considerable and an understanding of their historical development is helpful in gaining insights into current outdoor practices in a multitude of contexts and cultures. This chapter begins by reviewing a few iconic explorers and their journeys and expeditions, highlighting the broad use of the terms and a range of different purposes before examining the benefits and the learning processes involved (primarily focusing on young people and youth development). Research points clearly to the benefits across multiple domains and over extended periods of time. Studies draw on Philosophy, Psychology, Education and Sociology and indicate consistent and considerable contributions to moral development, spiritual growth, environmental stewardship, personal and social development alongside GRIT and resilience. Challenges for planning, executing and managing journeys and expeditions are discussed, these include: time; cost; environmental impact and expedition reverse culture shock, which can all contribute to making the justification for incorporating journeys and/or expeditions into educational curricula all the more difficult. It is important that those working in this area are aware of these challenges and learn to manage them appropriately in order to gain optimum benefit from these powerful outdoor learning tools.

Climate warming in high altitude regions is causing rapid retreat of mountain glaciers that might likely accelerate in the near future. As much as 99 % of all tropical glaciers are in the Andes, of which approximately 70% concentrate in the Cordillera Blanca range (Perú) where Parón Lake is located at the foot of Artesonraju Glacier. In the last century the glacier surface area in the Cordillera Blanca has decreased by around one third. Melting glaciers is leading to the formation of new proglacial lakes that are increasing in number and volume playing a key role in regulating water storage and supply to glacier-fed rivers. Glacier recession results in changes in paraglacial environments where processes acting on new exposed surfaces of highly reactive rocks are highly dynamic. These processes can generate important amounts of sediments which can threaten water quality and biodiversity. Environmental concerns strengthen the need for assessing the provenance of fine sediment. To this end, in the frame of the IAEA INT5153 project a two week field survey of the Parón Lake area was carried out in October 2016 to recognize the main glacial landforms which had direct connectivity to the drainage system into the lake. The main glacial landforms, which included moraines, colluvium, glacio-fluvial terraces and alluvial fans that had developed after different stages of glacier retreat from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Little Ice Age, were mapped. For identifying the main provenance of sediments, a total of 40 composite soil and sediment samples (from 0-3cm depth) were collected as sources from representative sites on the main glacial landforms. In addition a total of 9 sediment mixtures including composite channel bed sediments and suspended sediments were collected. Channel bed mixtures were sampled along the river system between the tongue of Artesonraju Glacier and the end of Parón Lake while suspended sediment samples were also collected from the lake margin half way along its length. For applying fingerprinting methods we analysed 6 radioisotopes (2 FRNs and 4 ERNs) and a total of 28 stable elements. The preliminary unmixing results modeled with FingerPro after applying a novel procedure for tracer selection (Lizaga et al., 2020) identified different provenances in each of the sampled points depending on the proximity and connectivity of the glacial landforms. Moraines and alluvial terraces were main contributors in two of the channel mixtures while a relatively greater apportion from colluvium and alluvial fans was found in the lake sediment mixture located at the end of the Parón Lake. Unmixing results for the suspended sediments confirmed the higher contributions from glacio-fluvial terraces and colluvium in the middle part of the lake suggesting that the direct connectivity of glacial landforms was a key control of fine sediment supply to the lake. Further research is needed to assess changes of sediment sources during wet seasons or rainfall peaks in high water and flood regime to gain more comprehensive information on the temporal and climate variability of fine sediment supply.

This chapter seeks to address a significant research gap in studies of outdoor experience. Although most of such research focuses on the benefit of the experiences, the work has rarely been concerned with more than the 2–3 years after the experience. Few empirical studies are available from which we can assess the long-term outcomes of youth expeditions. In this chapter the authors concentrate on the longer-term value of outdoor experiences, and the philosophical ideas surrounding the idea and possibility of 'life-changing experiences'. The chapter provides a synthesis and analysis of three very recent (and currently unpublished) studies, which shed some light on the long-term outcomes for participants of three different types of youth expeditions. The three retrospective studies, in different outdoor settings, explored the perceived long-lasting influence of expeditions in participants' lives. In terms of implications for future practice, the key conclusion is that these studies confirm the importance and long-term value of such expeditions to young people and add vital evidence to the case for building such opportunities into young people's lives. Themes identified included: increased environmental awareness and appreciation of nature and the outdoors; awareness of their good fortune in having participated in an expedition; gratefulness, service, and transfer to others; appreciation of leadership; and the importance of planning and preparation.

&lt;p&gt;Climate warming in high altitude regions is causing rapid retreat of mountain glaciers that might likely accelerate in the near future. As much as 99 % of all tropical glaciers are in the Andes, of which approximately 70% concentrate in the Cordillera Blanca range (Per&amp;#250;) where Par&amp;#243;n Lake is located at the foot of Artesonraju Glacier. In the last century the glacier surface area in the Cordillera Blanca has decreased by around one third. Melting glaciers is leading to the formation of new proglacial lakes that are increasing in number and volume playing a key role in regulating water storage and supply to glacier-fed rivers. Glacier recession results in changes in paraglacial environments where processes acting on new exposed surfaces of highly reactive rocks are highly dynamic. These processes can generate important amounts of sediments which can threaten water quality and biodiversity. Environmental concerns strengthen the need for assessing the provenance of fine sediment. To this end, in the frame of the IAEA INT5153 project a two week field survey of the Par&amp;#243;n Lake area was carried out in October 2016 to recognize the main glacial landforms which had direct connectivity to the drainage system into the lake. The main glacial landforms, which included moraines, colluvium, glacio-fluvial terraces and alluvial fans that had developed after different stages of glacier retreat from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Little Ice Age, were mapped. For identifying the main provenance of sediments, a total of 40 composite soil and sediment samples (from 0-3cm depth) were collected as sources from representative sites on the main glacial landforms. In addition a total of 9 sediment mixtures including composite channel bed sediments and suspended sediments were collected. Channel bed mixtures were sampled along the river system between the tongue of Artesonraju Glacier and the end of Par&amp;#243;n Lake while suspended sediment samples were also collected from the lake margin half way along its length. For applying fingerprinting methods we analysed 6 radioisotopes (2 FRNs and 4 ERNs) and a total of 28 stable elements. The preliminary unmixing results modeled with FingerPro after applying a novel procedure for tracer selection (Lizaga et al., 2020) identified different provenances in each of the sampled points depending on the proximity and connectivity of the glacial landforms. Moraines and alluvial terraces were main contributors in two of the channel mixtures while a relatively greater apportion from colluvium and alluvial fans was found in the lake sediment mixture located at the end of the Par&amp;#243;n Lake. Unmixing results for the suspended sediments confirmed the higher contributions from glacio-fluvial terraces and colluvium in the middle part of the lake suggesting that the direct connectivity of glacial landforms was a key control of fine sediment supply to the lake. Further research is needed to assess changes of sediment sources during wet seasons or rainfall peaks in high water and flood regime to gain more comprehensive information on the temporal and climate variability of fine sediment supply.&lt;/p&gt;

Studies of forest clear-felling operations in 1995-97 in the Afon Tanllwyth sub-catchment of the upper River Severn on Plynlimon, mid-Wales, by Stott et al. (Journal of Environmental Management (2001), 63, 3), indicated elevated suspended sediment loads (SSLs) immediately following timber harvesting. UK Forestry Commission (1993) Forests and Water Guidelines recommended that riparian buffer zones adjacent to streams were left unplanted. This study 20 years on assessed the SSLs at the same point in the Afon Tanllwyth for 21 months between January 2017 and September 2018. While SSLs reported by Stott et al. (Journal of Environmental Management (2001), 63, 3). increased during and after the clear-felling operations, by 2017-18 (20 years later) they appear to have recovered to levels similar to those measured pre-clear-felling (1995), despite this study taking place only a few months after approximately 3 ha of mature forest was clear-felled on the north side of the catchment. Although the mean monthly SSL for 2017-18 of 1628 +/- 95 kg is slightly lower than the 1,800 +/- 176 kg reported for 1995, the difference is not significant. When SSL is corrected for differences in total monthly flow the flow adjusted SSLs are 1,346 +/- 132 kg for 1995 and 945 +/- 55 kg for 2017-18, thus significantly lower in 2017-18. These new data for 2017-18 indicate that SSLs seem to have recovered to levels significantly below those measured and reported by Stott et al. (Journal of Environmental Management (2001), 63, 3-25) in 1995 pre-clear-felling period, likely as a result of the establishment of the 50 m buffer zone.