Resource availability is a primary factor predicting population performance. Synchrony between resource availability and consumer requirements plays a critical role in reproduction, and mismatches in the timing of resource availability and consumer requirements can have negative implications for reproductive success. Our objective was to determine when mass of juvenile and yearling white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in semiarid rangelands is most negatively affected by limited forage availability. Thus, we determined the biological period when rainfall, a primary driver of resource availability, was most predictive of juvenile and yearling mass. Over 12 years, we captured 1,123 juveniles and yearlings across five distinct populations. We linked georeferenced capture records to rainfall data from biological seasons hypothesized to affect juvenile and yearling mass. We found that rainfall during the early growing season exhibited the strongest effect on mass. The resource pulse associated with early growing season rainfall is likely used to fuel fetal development during the critical final trimester of gestation. As environmental change continues to exacerbate the potential for mismatches in resource availability and consumer requirements to occur, it is important to identify when limited forage availability may most negatively affect reproduction to inform species conservation and support long-term sustainability.

Habitat loss and fragmentation have been implicated in the decline of chestnut-bellied scaled quail (Callipepla squamata castanogastris) in southern Texas, U.S.A. Although a general affinity of the subspecies for native thornscrub is known, its specific habitat requirements are less studied, and no information exists regarding its demography. We conducted a study in southern Texas (n = 5 ranches; LaSalle and McMullen counties) to 1) quantify survival, reproduction, and occupancy of chestnut-bellied scaled quail and 2) characterize its nesting habitat to help inform future rangeland management. We captured and radio-collared individuals (n = 137) during Mar-Aug 2013 and 2014 to estimate survival and reproduction and conducted call-count surveys (n = 60 points) during May-August of both years to estimate occupancy and detection probability. We measured vegetation characteristics at nest sites (n = 53 nests) and paired random points to document habitat use. We documented seasonal survival (0.68-0.85), clutch size (10-11 eggs), and apparent nest success (38-59%) that were within values reported for scaled quail in other portions of its geographic distribution. However, relative abundance was low (0.14-0.25 calling males/point), as was occupancy (0.56-0.73) and probability of detection (0.10-0.32). Regarding nesting habitat, pricklypear (Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm.) was the most common nesting substrate (68%; n = 53 nests), with pricklypear (95% CI beta = 0.992-1.105; P < 0.09), woody plants (95% CI beta = 1.001-1.042; P < 0.04), and native grasses (95% CI beta = 0.993-1.129; P < 0.08) being important variables distinguishing nests from random sites. Nest survival was negatively influenced by non-native grass cover (95% CI beta = -0.115 to -0.006). Preservation of diverse shrub and native-grass communities should receive high consideration when planning brush management in southern Texas if conservation of chestnut-bellied scaled quail is a goal. (c) 2024 The Society for Range Management. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.

Habitat fragmentation can influence the spatial ecology of wildlife populations, with downstream effects on population dynamics and sustainability. Row-crop farming is a common anthropogenic landscape alteration, yet the effects on animal movement and space use is understudied in some species. Cropland can benefit wildlife nutritionally but may result in habitat loss because of changes in landscape composition and human disturbance. We quantified the influence of cropland presence and coverage on mule deer spatial ecology in the southern Great Plains. We GPS-collared 146 adult mule deer in four regions of the Texas Panhandle and monitored movement relative to spatio-temporal fluctuations in cropland and particular crop species availability for 2 years. We modeled the effects of cropland on space use and resource selection at multiple spatio-temporal scales to characterize population and individual habitat components of mule deer. We observed a functional response in cropland use, where at low coverage, use was proportional to availability but decreased with > 20

Plants may produce induced defenses such as longer thorns or secondary compounds to cope with higher levels of herbivory. However, it is unclear if physical and chemical plant defenses increase incrementally along a gradient of herbivore densities. We hypothesized that physical and chemical anti-herbivore defenses in selected shrubs increase with increasing herbivore density. We tested our hypothesis using four 0.81 km2 paddocks on each of two ranches in southern Texas, USA, that were fenced to exclude ingress and egress by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Target densities of deer on each ranch were 0 (control), 25, 49, and 74 deer/km2. Pelleted feed was provided ad libitum in each paddock. In July 2014, we selected ten plants of blackbrush acacia (Vachellia rigidula), twisted acacia (Vachellia schaffneri), and spiny hackberry (Celtis ehrenbergiana) in each of the four research paddocks on each ranch. We marked stems on each plant and recorded length of the main stem, lateral stems, and thorns during July 2014-2016. We collected leaf and stem samples from 20 plants of each of the three browse species during July and October 2014 and 2015 for analysis of crude protein and tannins. Branch density of blackbrush acacia was 38% (25 deer/km2) to 123% (49 deer/km2) greater in deer density treatments and thorn density of blackbrush acacia was 27% greater in treatments with 74 deer/km2 than in control treatments. Spiny hackberry branch density was 2.5 times greater in treatments with 49 deer/km2 than in control treatments. Induction of plant antiherbivore defenses with increasing deer density occurred primarily in blackbrush acacia. A key finding is that induced physical and chemical defenses in shrubs can respond to increasing herbivore density in a non-linear fashion and the combination of defense strategies can vary depending on herbivore density.

Past experiences may impart lasting effects on an individual despite temporal separation from the inciting event. Through an unmanipulated field study across 4 populations of free-living, white-tailed deer, we investigated the effect of variable summer rainfall on fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in adult females in autumn. We found evidence reduced summer rainfall imparted long-term effects on female glucocorticoid levels, but the effect of past environmental conditions depended on reproductive status. In the age of global climate change, extreme climatic events are expected to increase in frequency and severity. Animals will be forced to cope with these novel stressors in their environment. Glucocorticoids (i.e. 'stress' hormones) facilitate an animal's ability to cope with their environment. To date, most studies involving glucocorticoids focus on the immediate physiological effects of an environmental stressor on an individual, few studies have investigated the long-term physiological impacts of such stressors. Here, we tested the hypothesis that previous exposure to an environmental stressor will impart lasting consequences to an individual's glucocorticoid levels. In semi-arid environments, variable rainfall drives forage availability for herbivores. Reduced seasonal precipitation can present an extreme environmental stressor potentially imparting long-term impacts on an individual's glucocorticoid levels. We examined the effects of rainfall and environmental characteristics (i.e. soil and vegetation attributes) during fawn-rearing (i.e. summer) on subsequent glucocorticoid levels of female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in autumn. We captured 124 adult (>= 2.5-year-old) female deer via aerial net-gunning during autumn of 2015, 2016 and 2021 across four populations spanning a gradient of environmental characteristics and rainfall in the semi-arid environment of South Texas, USA. We found for every 1 cm decrease in summer rainfall, faecal glucocorticoid levels in autumn increased 6.9%, but only in lactating females. Glucocorticoid levels in non-lactating, female deer were relatively insensitive to environmental conditions. Our study demonstrates the long-lasting effects of environmental stressors on an individual's glucocorticoid levels. A better understanding of the long-term effects stressors impart on an individual's glucocorticoid levels will help to evaluate the totality of the cost of a stressor to an individual's welfare and predict the consequences of future climate scenarios.

The resource rule hypothesis predicts that geographic differences in body size among populations of organisms are due to the amount, availability, and quality of food resources. For instance, the body size of large herbivores is often correlated with soil characteristics because better soils produce better forage. In semiarid environments, rainfall variation is an important driver of forage availability, especially highly nutritious annual forbs. Thus, in such pulsed‐resource environments, it is unclear whether the body size of large herbivores is influenced by fixed resources correlated with soil characteristics, irregular resource pulses correlated with rainfall, or both. Furthermore, it is not clear whether phenotypic expression is a function of forage quality or quantity. During the early autumns of 2011–2018, we captured 4554 white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on seven rangeland sites in the semiarid climate of South Texas, USA. The sites range from coastal to 140 km inland and represent gradients in both soil texture and annual rainfall. We recorded age‐ and sex‐specific indices of skeletal size, antler size, and body mass. Site‐specific soil characteristics explained most of the variation in skeletal size; percent sand was inversely related to skeletal size. For environmentally sensitive phenotypes (antler size and body mass), both soil characteristics and rainfall were influencers; increases in rainfall reduced the negative effect of sand. Percent sand and rainfall were positively correlated with annual biomass of preferred forbs, yet all phenotypic traits declined with increases in forb quantity. Increases in percent shrub cover increased all phenotype sizes. Our data suggest that the phenotypic expression of large herbivores in semiarid environments is driven by forage quality via edaphic characteristics rather than forage quantity via rainfall. Specifically, less sand in the soil allows for the development of shrub communities, which in turn provide a consistent source of forage in a variable, pulsed‐rainfall environment. Although forbs are of higher quality, they are highly ephemeral. The availability of a consistent source of forage may enable white‐tailed deer to extend time invested in body growth, which results in greater phenotype size. Our findings align with the resource rule hypothesis that identifies resource availability as a fundamental element explaining geographical variation in phenotypic expression.

AbstractWhite-tailed deer are geographically widespread and occupy a variety of ecosystems from semi-desert shrubland and grasslands to forests. They have a relatively high reproductive potential but recruitment may be limited in semiarid rangelands where annual variation in precipitation is high. They eat browse and forbs but mast may seasonally comprise most of the diet. White-tailed deer select areas with a mixture of woody vegetation and areas dominated by herbaceous vegetation. They use woody vegetation for cover and often forage in adjacent herbaceous-dominated areas. They are highly adaptable and can adjust to changes in vegetation resulting from rangeland management practices; however, excessive grazing reduces habitat quality. Brush management minimally affects white-tailed deer and their habitat when adequate resources such as thermal cover, hiding cover, and browse-and-mast-producing vegetation remain on the landscape. Empirical evidence that creating mosaics of herbaceous-dominated foraging patches and woody cover improves demographics or productivity is equivocal; however, managing for increased spatial heterogeneity in vegetation may increase fawn survival. Chronic wasting disease is a major threat to white-tailed deer populations. White-tailed deer use behavioral adaptations to reduce excessive heat loads resulting from climate change in the southern part of their range. Paradoxically, populations are expanding in the northern part of their range in part because of milder winters. Hunting is the primary tool to manage white-tailed deer populations. Combining recreational hunting with livestock production increases revenue for ranchers. Ironically, white-tailed deer are often a nuisance in eastern forests, but they can be an economically important asset on rangelands.

AbstractPlant species richness is an important property of ecosystems that is altered by grazing. In a semiarid environment, we tested the hypotheses that (1) small‐scale herbaceous plant species richness declines linearly with increasing grazing intensity by large ungulates, (2) precipitation and percent sand interact with grazing intensity, and (3) response of herbaceous plant species richness to increasing intensity of ungulate grazing varies with patch productivity. During January–March 2012, we randomly allocated 50, 1.5‐m × 1.5‐m grazing exclosures within each of six 2500 ha study sites across South Texas, USA. We counted the number of herbaceous plant species and harvested vegetation in 0.25‐m2 plots within exclosures (ungrazed control plots) and in the grazed area outside the exclosures (grazed treatment plots) during October–November 2012–2019. We estimated percent use (grazing intensity) based on the difference in herbaceous plant standing crop between control plots and treatment plots. We selected the negative binomial regression model that best explained the relationship between grazing intensity and herbaceous plant species richness using the Schwarz‐Bayesian information criterion. After accounting for the positive effect of precipitation and percent sand on herbaceous plant species richness, species richness/0.25 m2 increased slightly from 0% to 30% grazing intensity and then declined with increasing grazing intensity. Linear and quadratic responses of herbaceous plant species richness to increasing grazing intensity were greater for the least productive patches (<15.7 g/0.25 m2) than for productive patches (≥15.7 g/0.25 m2). Our results followed the pattern predicted by the intermediate disturbance hypothesis model for the effect of grazing intensity on small‐scale herbaceous plant species richness.

Minerals are critical in maintaining health and physiological function in wildlife. Geographic variation in soil and forage mineral concentration may predispose wildlife to mineral imbalances, where a common symptom is restricted somatic growth. We investigated if mineral imbalances could explain localized differences in morphology of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) occurring in geographically proximate sites with similar management, climate, and habitat. We collected serum samples and morphological measurements from free-ranging white-tailed deer captured during 2011-2019 from coastal and inland rangeland sites in South Texas, USA. We measured mineral concentrations in serum from captured deer at each location. Asymptotic deer body mass and antler size averaged 8% - 20% smaller for deer at the coastal compared to the inland site. The proportion of deer with deficient levels of serum copper was greater at the coastal site (66% versus 14%). Our results suggest regional mineral deficiencies in deer may limit antler and body development. Wildlife managers should be aware of all aspects of wildlife nutrition and the importance of considering nutrients beyond energy and protein.

A growing body of work has revealed that differences in body size of ungulates follow ecoregion and soil boundaries and that these size differences are nutritionally influenced. Currently, it is unclear if these patterns of body size result from differences in quantity or quality of forage produced. We quantified differences in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimm.) body mass and antler size captured at four sites in South Texas, United States. We sampled available forage to determine if long-term differences in average body and antler size could be explained by forage quantity or quality, or some combination of the two. Data collected from 2011 to 2019 indicated female body mass was > 3 kg smaller on the eastern edge of the Coastal Sand Plain ecoregion as compared with those from the western transition zone of the Coastal Sand Plain and Tamaulipan Thornscrub ecoregions. Similarly, male body mass and antler size were > 6 kg and > 20 cm smaller, respectively, in coastal habitats compared with more interior sites. We found that forb biomass, browse and forb diversity, and the nutritional landscape, quantified using digestible energy, crude protein, phosphorus, and neutral detergent fiber, differed between sites. However, differences between sites were inconsistent with predictions that would have supported our hypothesis. Overall, we found no support for the hypothesis that forage quantity drives ecogeographic variation in physical traits of white-tailed deer but were unable to fully refute or support the hypothesis that forage quality, specifically plant diversity, drives ecogeographic variation in physical traits of ungulates.

Context. Conversion of native vegetation to cropland is one of the most widespread anthropogenic landscape alterations, particularly in the Great Plains region of the United States. Mule deer occur throughout the Great Plains; however, it is the south-eastern edge of their geographical distribution, and few populations coincide with dense cropland. The rapidly depleting Ogallala Aquifer supplies irrigation to row-crops throughout the region, which will likely shift towards dryland agricultural practices in the near future. Aims. We sought to understand how cropland use influences morphology, body condition indices, reproductive output, and survival of free-ranging mule deer. Methods. We accumulated a multi-year, longitudinal dataset of movement and morphology for 146 mule deer in the Texas Panhandle. We linked seasonal cropland use with observed morphology, body condition metrics, and reproductive output via linear mixed-effect modelling and assessed the influence of cropland on annual survival by using Cox proportional hazard models. Key results. Mule deer that did not use cropland at any time during the year exhibited morphological and nutritional indices similar to those that did; except body-fat percentage being greater for mature (=4-year-old) males that used cropland. Further, cropland use did not predict survival probability. Analyses of cropland use during seasons defined by life-stage showed context-dependent nutritional benefits. Use of cropland during winter following reproduction demonstrated an increase in young (=3-year-old) male antler size and body mass and summer crop use increased body condition for all males. Female mule deer that utilised cropland before pregnancy had increased probability of successful reproduction, demonstrating a potential capital investment strategy in reproduction. Conclusions. Cropland does not limit morphology or survival of mule deer; however, additive use of row-crops can provide a nutritional buffer and enhanced reproductive output for individuals that choose to utilise it. Implications. Our study demonstrates important population-level interactions with the environment for a species near the extent of their geographical distribution. Conversion of row-crop farming from aquifer depletion or climate shifts may not diminish mule deer populations, but these changes may alter specific habitat-nutritional health relationships that can influence population performance and future conservation efforts.

Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) are a grassland specialist that have experienced a >60% reduction in their historical range due to habitat fragmentation and encroachment of woody vegetation. Pronghorn populations are increasing in the Texas Panhandle despite conversion of grassland to cropland (27-43% of the regional landscape) and associated fragmentation. We hypothesized that pronghorn avoid cropland when selecting seasonal home ranges and avoid cropland within their home ranges. We captured 64 adult pronghorn of equal sex ratios in both the High Plains (n = 32) and Rolling Plains (n = 32) ecoregions of Texas, USA, during February 2017 and fitted them with iridium satellite global positioning system (GPS) collars. We collared 27 additional pronghorn in 2018 to account for mortalities and collar failures. We estimated resource selection functions for the High Plains and Rolling Plains populations using mixed-effects logistic regression at the home range (second order) and within home range (third order) scales separately for each ecoregion and season (fawning, summer, rut, and winter). Our hypothesis that pronghorn avoid cropland was supported in the Rolling Plains ecoregion at the home range scale; otherwise, cropland was inconsistently and seasonally important in resource selection. Furthermore, pronghorn often avoided paved roads more strongly than cropland. At the home range scale during 2017-2019, female pronghorn in the High Plains selected cropland during rut and winter. Males exhibited weak selection for cropland during rut. Within home ranges in the High Plains, female pronghorn avoided cropland during fawning in 2017, during rut in 2017 and 2018, and during winter 2019 but selected areas closer to cropland in winter 2017 and fawning 2018. Males selected areas farther from cropland during all sampling dates in 2017 and winter 2019. Avoidance and selection of cropland within home ranges also varied among seasons and years in the Rolling Plains. Overall, pronghorn avoided cropland when selecting home ranges in the Rolling Plains and cropland was otherwise inconsistently and only seasonally important in resource selection at the home range and within home range scales. We speculate that loss of pronghorn habitat to cropland in the High Plains and Rolling Plains of Texas may outweigh temporary nutritional benefits from seasonal use of crops.

Formative patterns of vegetation responses to cattle grazing can be difficult to detect because of innate heterogeneity of vegetation communities and grazing patterns, especially in semiarid environments. Nonetheless, some of this heterogeneity can be accounted for using appropriate experimental designs and statistical analyses. Bork and Werner (1999) suggested retention of negative vegetation consumption values for paired herbivory studies to concurrently analyze spatial heterogeneity and intensity of herbivory. Yet, inclusion of negative consumption metrics has not been widely utilized. Our objective is to determine if postulates proposed by Bork and Werner (interpretation of effects when negative consumption values are manipulated) are applicable to a real data set utilizing a paired experimental design in a heterogeneous, semiarid environment. We determined manipulation of negative consumptive values affects interpretation; it skews data distribution, over-estimates treatment effect, and results in a statistically weaker treatment effect. Therefore, we recommend employing a biologically paired experimental design and the retention of all negative vegetation consumption values so that: (1) resulting models represent a normally distributed population, (2) standing crop of vegetation resulting from the treatment is not over-estimated and (3) grazer treatment effect in heterogenous environments is recognized if existent. This will ensure conservative metrics guide management decisions.

Southern Texas contains some of the last relatively unfragmented habitat for northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus; hereafter, bobwhite) and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) in the United States. Development of the Eagle Ford Shale hydrocarbon formation in this region could negatively impact quail and their habitat. Our objective was to examine the indirect effects of oil and gas activity (traffic and noise) on bobwhite and scaled quail on 2 private ranches in southern Texas. In 2015 and 2016, we radio-marked bobwhite and scaled quail in 2 areas where oil and gas activity was occurring (disturbed treatment) and 2 areas where little oil and gas activity occurred (undisturbed treatment). We measured vehicle passages and modeled noise propagation from oil and gas infrastructure at 2 biologically relevant frequencies (250 Hz and 1,000 Hz) in our study area to quantify oil and gas disturbance and examine its effects on quail space use (site selection and home range size) and demographics (survival, nest success, and density). Bobwhite and scaled quail selected areas 0–200 m and >425 m, respectively, from the primary, high-traffic roads in the disturbed treatment. In the undisturbed treatment, bobwhite and scaled quail selected areas 0–425 m and 0–300 m from primary roads, respectively. Bobwhite and scaled quail selected areas with sound levels 0–1.6 and 0–2.2 dB above ambient levels at the 250-Hz frequency level, respectively. At 1,000 Hz, bobwhite and scaled quail selected areas with sound levels 0–2 and 0–3.2 dB above ambient levels, respectively. We found no evidence that disturbance variables affected bobwhite and scaled quail home range size, survival, or density. We found bobwhite nest success decreased as sound levels (dB) at 250 Hz increased; we found no relationship between nest success and disturbance for scaled quail, possibly as they avoided major oil and gas disturbances. In calculations of the total footprint of quail habitat loss, indirect loss due to oil and gas activity needs to be considered in addition to direct loss due to conversion of rangeland to oil and gas infrastructure.

ABSTRACT Non-native, invasive grasses can pose a threat to biodiversity in the southern U.S. Pennisetum ciliare (buffelgrass) is an example of an introduced invasive grass that has established in southwestern rangelands and negatively influenced biodiversity. Since its introduction, millions of hectares in the southwestern U.S. have been planted with, or invaded by, buffelgrass. Buffelgrass can form monocultures that not only reduce biodiversity but can also change ecosystem processes. Native-grassland restorations may be able to mitigate such negative impacts of non-native grasses. We conducted a study to document the response of herbaceous plants (grasses and forbs) and wildlife (grassland breeding birds, grassland wintering birds, and butterflies) to a 118-ha grassland restoration (involving prescribed fire, multiple discing and herbicide applications, and native-plant seeding) in La Salle County, Texas during 2013–2019. In general, we documented a numerical increase for all three taxa (native plants, birds, and butterflies) in species richness and relative abundance on the restoration site compared to a control. Our results suggest that native-grassland restoration is possible in a landscape dominated by buffelgrass. These restoration efforts can increase plant and wildlife diversity, although the time and expense required to achieve such responses are great.

Grazing by livestock, particularly cattle (Bos spp.), is the dominant land use across North American rangelands and often co-occurs in habitats used by wildlife. Deer (Odocoileus spp.) are an ecologically and economically important native wildlife species in North America. Sustainable management and profitable economic returns require an understanding of the factors driving cattle-deer compatibility. Cattle are compatible with deer when cattle grazing does not negatively impact deer or their habitat requirements (food, cover, and space). We reviewed 2,685 publications on cattle-deer interactions across North American ecosystems to assess the compatibility of these two important genera. We extracted data from 85 of the publications, years ranged from 1930–2015, that met criteria for quantifying cattle-deer diet overlap, and cattle effects on deer food, cover, and space. We determined that cattle-deer compatibility across North American ecosystems is dictated: mostly by geographic region; followed by cattle stocking rate and season; and marginally by soil texture. Cattle and deer were compatible across North American ecosystems when cattle stocking rate was less than 0.12−0.17 AUY ha−1. Cattle-deer diet overlap was lowest during summer and autumn. Although, cattle had the greatest potential to decrease forbs in the northeastern forested ecoregion on clay soils during autumn. Cattle had little measurable effect on habitat variables important to deer in open North American ecoregions dominated by herbaceous vegetation. In contrast to rangelands, cattle had the greatest potential to adversely impact deer food, cover, and use of space in forest-dominated ecoregions in North America. However, observations in eastern forested ecoregions only represented 6−16% our data sets. Our review reveals a range of conservative cattle stocking rates (0.12−0.17 AUY ha−1) that will have minimal impact on deer using rangelands, and that stocking rates in forested ecoregions may need to be reduced further to minimize impacts to deer and their habitat requirements.

Reducing grass standing crop by grazing may increase forbs and benefit wildlife that depend on forbs. However, precipitation and soil texture also strongly influence forb standing crop. We determined if standing crop of forbs selected by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimm.) is more strongly influenced by grazing or precipitation. Ungulates typically graze in patches with greater standing crop than the surrounding vegetation. Our second objective was to determine if predicted relationships of forb standing crop with grazing, precipitation, and percent sand were similar with less productive sites included or excluded from models. We estimated standing crop of grasses and forbs in 50 paired grazing exclosures and grazed plots on each of six 2 500-ha study sites. Standing crop of forbs selected by white-tailed deer (selected forbs) was strongly related to precipitation and percent sand but not estimated percent use of grasses. For our second objective, we examined grazing effects on forbs by removing pairs of exclosures and grazed plots from the data where grass standing crop in nongrazed exclosures exceeded the average standing crop of grass after grazing. Percent use of grasses did not influence selected forb standing crop when we included only productive patches. For overall forb standing crop in productive patches, percent use of grasses and percent sand interacted. Forbs declined with increasing percent use of grasses in less sandy soils and increased with percent use of grasses in sandy soils. Grazing is not useful to increase forbs selected by white-tailed deer in our study sites because standing crop of selected forbs is more strongly dependent on precipitation and soil texture than on grazing. Grazing did influence forb standing crop in productive areas, which suggests accounting for grazing effects in productive versus less productive areas of the landscape provides insight into herbivore-vegetation relationships.