Motivation states for physical activity and sedentarism potentially vary from moment to moment. The CRAVE scale (Cravings for Rest and Volitional Energy Expenditure) was developed to assess transient wants and desires to move. Three studies were conducted with the aims of: (1) translating and validating the scale in Brazilian Portuguese, (2) examining changes with exercise, and (3) determining the best single-item for Move and Rest subscales for English and Portuguese. In Study 1, six bilingual speakers translated the scale into Brazilian Portuguese [named Anseios por Repouso e Gastos com Energia (ARGE)]. The ARGE had good content validity coefficients across three dimensions (0.89-0.91), as determined by three independent, bilingual referees. 1,168 participants (mean age = 30.6, SD = 12.2) from across Brazil completed an online version of the ARGE. An Exploratory Factor Analysis found two clear, oblique, and inversely related factors (Move and Rest; GFI = 1.00, RMSR = 0.03). Reliability was good (Cronbach & alpha;'s: 0.93 and 0.92). Two models of the scale (10 vs. 13 items) were compared with Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The previously validated version using 10 scored items (GFI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.07, RMSR = 0.02) outperformed the version scored with 13 items. State anxiety and exercise behavior had small associations with Move and Rest (-0.20 to 0.26). In Study 2, ARGE Move scores had high correspondence post-session (ICC = 0.83) for 9 women performing short Sprint Interval Training (sSIT; 6 sessions). Large, but non-significant, effects were detected for changes in motivation states with sSIT. In Study 3, IRT analyses found that for the United States sample, "be physically active" and "be still" were the most representative items for Move and Rest, respectively, while for the Brazil sample they were "exert my muscles" and "be a couch potato." Overall, it was found that: (A) the ARGE scale demonstrated good psychometric properties, (B) the original scoring (with 10 items) resulted in the best model, (C) it had small associations with exercise behavior, and (D) the subscales were reduced to single items that varied by country, indicating potential cultural differences in the concept of motivation states for physical activity.

Motivation for physical activity and sedentary behaviors (e.g., desires, urges, wants, cravings) varies from moment to moment. According to the WANT model, these motivation states may be affectively-charged (e.g., felt as tension), particularly after periods of maximal exercise or extended rest. The purpose of this study was to examine postulates of the WANT model utilizing a mixed-methods approach. We hypothesized that: (1) qualitative evidence would emerge from interviews to support this model, and (2) motivation states would quantitatively change over the course of an interview period. Seventeen undergraduate students (mean age = 18.6y, 13 women) engaged in focus groups where 12 structured questions were presented. Participants completed the "right now" version of the CRAVE scale before and after interviews. Qualitative data were analyzed with content analysis. A total of 410 unique lower-order themes were classified and grouped into 43 higher order themes (HOTs). From HOTs, six super higher order themes (SHOTs) were designated: (1) wants and aversions, (2) change and stability, (3) autonomy and automaticity, (4) objectives and impulses, (5) restraining and propelling forces, and (6) stress and boredom. Participants stated that they experienced desires to move and rest, including during the interview, but these states changed rapidly and varied both randomly as well as systematically across periods of minutes to months. Some also described a total absence of desire or even aversion to move and rest. Of note, strong urges and cravings for movement, typically from conditions of deprivation (e.g., sudden withdrawal from exercise training) were associated with physical and mental manifestations, such as fidgeting and feeling restless. Urges were often consummated with behavior (e.g., exercise sessions, naps), which commonly resulted in satiation and subsequent drop in desire. Importantly, stress was frequently described as both an inhibitor and instigator of motivation states. CRAVE-Move increased pre-to-post interviews (p < .01). CRAVE-Rest demonstrated a trend to decline (p = .057). Overall, qualitative and quantitative data largely corroborated postulates of the WANT model, demonstrating that people experience wants and cravings to move and rest, and that these states appear to fluctuate significantly, especially in the context of stress, boredom, satiety, and deprivation.

College athletics can place immense demands on athletes in terms of time commitment, physical conditioning, and pressure to perform. However, one important but less visible dimension affected by participation is one’s identity. College athletes hold multiple identities (Sturm et al., 2011) and these identities are further refined through their experiences (Chang et al., 2018). However, much less is known about athletes’ cognitive awareness of others’ perceptions and how those opinions influence athletes’ sense of self. In the present work, 52 Division I collegiate basketball players took part in a qualitative survey focused on understanding their athletic experience based on interactions with others. Responses revealed that athletes had dichotomous beliefs when addressing their perceptions of self and how they believed others viewed them, primarily based on the influence of sport. Conversely, athletes had more differing thoughts when discussing their aspirations and wishes for their future and often discussed professional goals, personality traits, and connections to others. Taken together, these results corroborate the desire (and need) for athletes to foster identities beyond their sport world (Stokowski et al., 2019) and for those who shape the sport experience to proactively work on behalf of athletes in this domain.

The rate of alcohol consumption among student-athletes places them at risk for engaging in unsafe behaviors. Although coaches play a key role in regulating alcohol use among athletes, many lack the knowledge and self-confidence to be effective. This study aimed to examine the relationship between alcohol consumption literacy and alcohol confrontation efficacy among National Collegiate Athletic Association head coaches and attempted to identify types of training and education wanted to better manage student-athlete alcohol use. A total of 518 National Collegiate Athletic Association head coaches completed alcohol consumption literacy and alcohol confrontation efficacy measures and two openended questions about what kind of alcohol training, information, and skills were needed. When accounting for previous education/training and gender of team coached, alcohol consumption literacy predicted all confrontation efficacy subscales. Content analysis showed coaches wanted training related to alcohol literacy, effective communication, and prevention planning. Findings have implications for designing alcohol prevention and intervention programs aimed at National Collegiate Athletic Association coaches.

Motivation for bodily movement, physical activity and exercise varies from moment to moment. These motivation states may be “affectively-charged,” ranging from instances of lower tension (e.g., desires, wants) to higher tension (e.g., cravings and urges). Currently, it is not known how often these states have been investigated in clinical populations (e.g., eating disorders, exercise dependence/addiction, Restless Legs Syndrome, diabetes, obesity) vs. healthy populations (e.g., in studies of motor control; groove in music psychology). The objective of this scoping review protocol is to quantify the literature on motivation states, to determine what topical areas are represented in investigations of clinical and healthy populations, and to discover pertinent details, such as instrumentation, terminology, theories, and conceptual models, correlates and mechanisms of action. Iterative searches of scholarly databases will take place to determine which combination of search terms (e.g., “motivation states” and “physical activity”; “desire to be physically active,” etc.) captures the greatest number of relevant results. Studies will be included if motivation states for movement (e.g., desires, urges) are specifically measured or addressed. Studies will be excluded if referring to motivation as a trait. A charting data form was developed to scan all relevant documents for later data extraction. The primary outcome is simply the extent of the literature on the topic. Results will be stratified by population/condition. This scoping review will unify a diverse literature, which may result in the creation of unique models or paradigms that can be utilized to better understand motivation for bodily movement and exercise.

Physical activity, and likely the motivation for it, varies throughout the day. The aim of this investigation was to create a short assessment (CRAVE: Cravings for Rest and Volitional Energy Expenditure) to measure motivation states (wants, desires, urges) for physical activity and sedentary behaviors. Five studies were conducted to develop and evaluate the construct validity and reliability of the scale, with 1,035 participants completing the scale a total of 1,697 times. In Study 1, 402 university students completed a questionnaire inquiring about the want or desire to perform behaviors “at the present moment (right now).” Items related to physical activity (e.g., “move my body”) and sedentary behaviors (e.g., “do nothing active”). An exploratory structural equation model (ESEM) revealed that 10 items should be retained, loading onto two factors (5 each for Move and Rest). In Study 2, an independent sample (n = 444) confirmed these results and found that Move and Rest desires were associated with stage-of-change for exercise behavior. In Study 3, 127 community-residing participants completed the CRAVE at 6-month intervals over two years- two times each session. Across-session interclass correlations (ICC) for Move (ICC = 0.72–0.95) and Rest (ICC = 0.69–0.88) were higher than when they were measured across 24-months (Move: ICC = 0.53; Rest: ICC = 0.49), indicating wants/desires have state-like qualities. In Study 4, a maximal treadmill test was completed by 21 university students. The CRAVE was completed immediately pre and post. Move desires decreased 26% and Rest increased 74%. Changes in Move and Rest desires were moderately associated with changes in perceived physical fatigue and energy. In Study 5, 41 university students sat quietly during a 50-min lecture. They completed the CRAVE at 3 time points. Move increased 19.6% and Rest decreased 16.7%. Small correlations were detected between move and both perceived energy and tiredness, but not calmness or tension. In conclusion, the CRAVE scale has good psychometric properties. These data also support tenets of the WANT model of motivation states for movement and rest (Stults-Kolehmainen et al., 2020a). Future studies need to explore how desires to move/rest relate to dynamic changes in physical activity and sedentarism.

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to examine and compare levels of parental self-efficacy (PSE) and parenting practices (PP) between parents of young children with and without disabilities regarding physical activity (PA) participation of their children and (b) to analyze and compare the relationship between PSE and PP. A total of 235 participants completed a survey measuring levels of PSE and PP related to the promotion of PA for their children. The results showed no differences in levels of PSE and PP between parents of children with and without disabilities (p > 0.05). A positive moderate relationship was found between PSE and PP from total participants (r = 0.497, p < 0.001) as well as parents of children with disabilities (r = 0.440, p < 0.001). Parents of children with disabilities had comparable levels of confidence (PSE) and competence (PP) in promoting PA to their children compared to those of parents of children without disabilities. The current study supports the mechanism of self-efficacy and behavior and the importance of early intervention for parents of children with disabilities to build higher PSE for their child's future PA habit through improved PP.

Zebras in the Basketball Serengeti: Perceptions of High School Basketball Officiating Steven M. Howell, Todd A. Gilson, Claire C. Zvosec, Zachary Wahl-Alexander Abstract Sport participation has changed from a participatory activity to a vehicle for the attainment of prestige and tangible rewards. Consequently, the duties of officials have broadened considerably. As a result of this shift, the visibility and scrutiny of officials has increased. Therefore, the present study sought to gain a deep understanding of experiences of high school basketball officials with the goal of deriving practical implications for officials and society as a whole. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to examine memorable experiences of officials (n=10), training/mentoring an official receives to adequately complete their job, how to handle emotionally charged situations, and the role of organizations in promoting a positive sport experience for all. Findings from the present study suggest that negativity, enhanced media coverage, proactive officiating, and the need to develop officials most often impacted their experiences. Results and implications for researchers, athletic administrators, and current/prospective officials are discussed. Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.15640/jpesm.v8n1a2

PURPOSE: The CRAVE (Cravings for Rest and Volitional Energy Expenditure) Scale measures the intrinsic desire (or want) for movement and sedentary behaviors, as measured “right now”. The purpose of this study was a) to evaluate changes in and the construct validity of the CRAVE Scale before and after maximal exercise and b) assess relationships between these desires and with perceptions of energy and fatigue. METHODS: The CRAVE Scale is made up of 7-Rest & 6-Move questions (1-10 Likert scale). Fatigue and energy were measured with visual analogue scales. The CRAVE was administered to 21 undergraduate students in physical activity classes (ages 19-24 years; 57% non-Caucasian; 58% female). Participants were given the CRAVE within a minute of starting and again within two-minutes of finishing a maximal treadmill test. Changes were assessed with paired t-tests. Correlations were calculated to assess relationships between the CRAVE and mental energy (ME), mental fatigue (MF), physical energy (PE), and physical fatigue (PF). RESULTS: Desire to move significantly decreased (39.9 ± 9.6 vs. 29.5 ± 10.7, p<0.01) while desire to rest significantly increased (17.8 ± 12.3 vs. 29.1 ± 18.1, p<0.01) from pre- to post-treadmill test. Desire to move pre- was significantly associated with desire to move post- (r=0.63, p=0.002). Baseline desire to rest was significantly associated with desire to rest post- (r= -0.48, p=0.027) and with the post-test change in desire to move (r=0.53, p=0.014). Change in desire to move was inversely associated with change in desire to rest (r= -0.73, p=0.002). Baseline desire to move was significantly associated with the post PE (r=0.45, p=0.041). Change in desire to move had a negative association with change in PF (r= -0.52, p=0.019), but not with change in PE (r=0.31), ME (r= -0.10) or MF (r= -0.17). Change in desire to rest had an inverse correlation with change in PE (r= -0.64, p=0.003) and a positive correlation with change in PF (r=0.53, p=0.016). It was not correlated with change in either ME (r=0.06) or MF (r=0.20). CONCLUSION: Desires to move and rest change with an exercise stimulus, with desire to move decreasing and rest increasing. Furthermore, these findings suggest that the desire to move and rest are moderately associated with feelings of physical energy/fatigue but not mental energy/fatigue.

To better explain daily fluctuations in physical activity and sedentary behavior, investigations of motivation are turning from social cognitive frameworks to those centered on affect, emotion and automaticity, such as the Affect and Health Behavior Framework (AHBF), Integrated Framework and Affective-Reflective Theory (ART). This shift has necessitated: (a) re-examination of older theories and their constructs, such as drives, needs and tensions and (b) an inspection of competing theories from other fields that also attempt to explain dynamic changes in health behaviors. The Dynamical Model of Desire, Elaborated Intrusion Theory and others commonly share with AHBF the idea that human behavior is driven strongly by desires and/or the similar concepts of wants, urges, and cravings. These affectively-charged motivation states (ACMS) change quickly and may better explain physical activity behavior from one moment to the next. Desires for movement predominantly derive from negative but also positive reinforcement. Data from clinical populations with movement dysfunction or psychiatric disorders provides further evidence of these drivers of movement. Those with Restless Legs Syndrome, akathisia, tic disorders and exercise dependence all report strong urges to move and relief when it is accomplished. Motor control research has identified centers of the brain responsible for wants and urges for muscular movement. Models elaborated herein differentiate between wants, desires, urges and cravings. The WANT model (Wants and Aversions for Neuromuscular Tasks) conceptualizes desires for movement and rest as varying by magnitude, approach or avoidance-orientation (wants versus aversions) and as occupying independent dimensions instead of opposite ends of the same axis. For instance, one hypothetically might be in a state of both high desire for movement and rest simultaneously. Variations in motivation states to move and rest may also be associated with various stress states, like freezing or fight and flight. The first validated instrument to measure feelings of desire/want for movement and rest, the CRAVE Scale (Cravings for Rest and Volitional Energy Expenditure) is already shedding light on the nature of these states. With these advances in theory, conceptual modeling and instrumentation, future investigations may explore the effects of desires and urges for movement and sedentary behavior in earnest.

The Desire To Move And Rest: Assessing Reliability And Validity Of The CRAVE Scale Matthew Stults-Kolehmainen, Miguel Blacutt, Amanda Divin, Susannah Williamson, Todd A. Gilson, John B. Bartholomew, FACSM, Rajita Sinha. Yale New Haven Hospital, New Haven, CT. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY. Northwestern State University, Natchitoches, LA. Texas A & M University, College Station, TX. Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL. The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. Yale University Medical School, New Haven, CT. (Sponsor: John B. Bartholomew, FACSM) Email: Matthew.Stults-kolehmainen@YNHH.ORG

The purpose of the present study was to translate into Spanish and analyze the reliability and validity of the Referee Self-Efficacy Scale (REFS). The English version of the 13-item REFS, which was created by Myers, Feltz, Guillen and Dithurbide (2012), was analyzed with data obtained from a sample of 490 Spanish referees representing three different team sports. The reliability was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha and test-retest. The validity was assessed through Confirmatory Factor Analyses and the correlations between the REFS subscales. The reliability estimated with Cronbach's alpha was (alpha =.85) which was acceptable for the 13-item REFS as well as its subscales ranged .72 to .80. The Confirmatory Factor Analyses were performed which supported a 13-item REFS, assessing the four hypothesized dimensions of self-efficacy: game knowledge, decision-making, pressure, and communication. The overall fit of the model was good showing value of .95 for AGFI, .97 for GFI and NNFI, .98 for CFI, and .04 for RMSEA. In conclusion, this version shows good properties in terms of its dimensionality and internal consistency. Guidelines are also provided for future research on its validity as a measure of self-efficacy in a sample of Spanish officials.