Erysiphe corylacearum, the causal agent of powdery mildew in hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.), has become an emerging pathogen of concern in Italian hazelnut production requiring rapid and accurate detection to support timely disease management and phytosanitary measures. We developed and validated a field-deployable loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for the specific detection of E. corylacearum and evaluated three primer sets targeting the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region, RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (rpb2), and glutamine synthetase (GS) genes; the GS-targeting Ecg set showed the highest sensitivity and specificity. The assay was shown to be sensitive down to 200 fg of fungal DNA, efficiently detected E. corylacearum from diluted crude leaf extracts, and produced results within half an hour, allowing the detection of latent infections before visible symptoms emerged. On-site validation with a portable LAMP instrument showed the assay’s suitability for field-deployable diagnosis and early-warning applications in hazelnut orchards.

Alfalfa anthracnose is an economically significant disease that leads to substantial biomass losses due to stem rot, reduced stand longevity, and a decline in forage nutritional quality. The disease is caused by multiple species within the genus Colletotrichum, including the 14 described species: C. gloeosporioides, C. truncatum, C. lindemuthianum, C. destructivum, C. dematium, C. trifolii, C. medicaginis, C. graminicola, C. coccodes, C. sojae, C. spinaciae, C. lini, C. americae-borealis, and C. tofieldiae. A thorough understanding of key aspects of the pathogen’s biology, along with its epidemiology, infection cycle, and accurate disease diagnosis, is essential for the development of sustainable management strategies. Knowledge of these factors allows us to anticipate disease outbreaks, implement timely interventions, and design integrated control measures that reduce reliance on chemical fungicides while maintaining crop productivity and forage quality. Although anthracnose management has traditionally relied on synthetic fungicides, this review synthesizes alternative control strategies to clarify the current state of knowledge and to provide new insights into the development of effective and sustainable approaches for managing Colletotrichum species.

Bacterial fruit blotch, caused by Paracidovorax citrulli, is a destructive disease affecting the foliage and fruits of a wide range of cucurbit crops. Because of its seed-borne nature and high potential for rapid spread, P. citrulli has been recognised as a quarantine organism in Europe and beyond. In Serbia, the first occurrence was recorded in 2014, with subsequent outbreaks reported in 2018, 2021 and 2022 at several localities. Multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) (gltA, gmc, pilT, ugpB, gyrB, Aave_1548), together with rep- (GTG5-) and arbitrarily primed PCR, indicated the presence of two described groups among Serbian populations: Group I, comprising strains isolated in 2021 and 2022, and Group II, including strains from the first outbreak in 2014 and from 2018. Additionally, analysis of the Aave_1548 gene clearly separated strains within Group I into a third, subtle subcluster, based on a single nucleotide polymorphism. In contrast, the lepA, phaC and trpB genes in MLSA, as well as BOX-PCR, showed the lowest discriminatory power, resulting in highly similar profiles across all strains. Virulence assays on mature fruits showed the highest level of watery flesh rot on watermelon, followed by cucumber, squash and melon. Inoculated tomato fruits (non-cucurbit) developed water-soaked lesions localised at the inoculation site. Generalised linear mixed model analysis segregated the strains into two groups similarly to MLSA: I-more virulent on melon, and II-more virulent on watermelon, cucumber and squash. These findings enhance understanding of the genetic diversity and pathogenic variability of P. citrulli in Serbia and support improved monitoring and disease management strategies.

Bacterial leaf spot of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), caused by the phytopathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. aptata (Psa), has emerged frequently in Serbia since its initial report in 2013. The latest disease outbreak was detected on cultivar Viola in 2023 in the Bačka region (Vojvodina). A diversity survey of Psa strains associated with bacterial leaf spot based on DNA profiling and multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) identified novel, distinct Psa strains. BOX-, ERIC-, and M13-PCR produced the highest and equal number of visually distinct profiles within Psa strains, while GTG5 showed the lowest discriminatory power. MLSA ultimately resulted in the formation of two phylogenetic groups based on the gltA, gapA, and gyrB housekeeping genes and only one group based on the rpoD, which differed from that previously reported Serbian Psa strains. The representative strain Psa3223 tends to form a separate group, suggesting the presence of a novel allelic variant within the Psa population originating from Serbia, while the other Psa strains were homogeneous and mostly related to the reference strains PD193 and PD197. The newly isolated Psa strains exhibited high aggressiveness in the pathogenicity assay on sugar beet (cv. Viola). The results highlight unexplored genetic richness not only within the P. syringae species complex but also specifically within the Psa species. This finding contributes to better understanding of Psa population structure and provides a foundation for ongoing studies into the pathogen's evolution and epidemiology.

Analysis of the weed flora of organically grown oat in the village of Trumčare (near Kruševac) revealed the presence of a total of 28 species of weed (16 weed-ruderal, 11 weedy and 1 ruderal). The recorded weed flora was dominated by representatives of the class Magnoliopsida and 26 species, while only two species were present from the class Liliopsida. The analysis of life forms of weeds in wheat showed the dominance of therophytes represented by 78.57%, compared to geophytes and hemicryptophytes with 10.71% each. The number of weeds was not high, because the basic, pre-sowing soil preparation and sowing were carried out under favorable weather conditions and in the optimal period. On all observed areas under oat, the following weed species were most frequent: Agrostemma githago L., Ambrosia artemiisifolia L., Polygonum aviculare L., Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic., Calepina irregularis (Asso) Thell., Lamium purpireum L., Viola arvensis Murr., Cerastium glomeratum Thuill, Stellaria media (L.) Vill. and Agropyrum repens Beauv.

Analysis of the weed flora of organically grown barley in the village of Trumčare (near Kruševac) revealed the presence of a total of 55 species of weed (30 weed-ruderal, 20 weedy and 5 ruderal). The recorded weed flora was dominated by representatives of the class Magnoliopsida and 47 species, while only eight species were present from the class Liliopsida. The analysis of life forms of weeds in barley showed the dominance of therophytes represented by 67.27%, compared to geophytes and hemicryptophytes which were represented by 10.91% each. Therohemicryptophytes were represented by 9.10% and nanophanerophytes by 1.82%. The number of weeds was not high, because the basic, pre-sowing soil preparation and sowing were carried out under favorable weather conditions and in the optimal period. On all observed areas under barley, the following weed species were most frequent: Lamium amplexicaule L., Agrostemma githago L., Avena fatua L., Calepina irregularis (Asso) Thell., Agropyrum repens Beauv., Lamium purpireum L., Viola arvensis Murr., Veronica hederifolia L., Veronica persica Poir., Cerastium glomeratum Thuill, Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic., Stellaria media (L.) Vill., and Galium aparine L.

The development of biological pesticides is rapidly becoming an integral aspect of pest management in sustainable agriculture. This study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Bacillus halotolerans strain B33 against three common seedborne fungal pathogens-Fusarium graminearum, Alternaria alternata, and Aspergillus flavus. B33 strain identity was determined using the 16S rRNA and tuf gene sequences. Commercial wheat, barley, oat, and rye seeds were artificially infected by fungal isolates and then treated with B33 overnight culture in Nutrient Broth. The obtained results indicate high efficacy against F. graminearum (83.55-94.38%) and A. alternata (85.05-96.70%), whereby the highest efficacy was noted on wheat seed and the lowest was detected on rye seed. On the other hand, B33 achieved 100% efficacy against A. flavus on barley, rye, and oat seeds, while being 96.24% effective against this pathogen on wheat. Principal component analysis indicated the highest treatment influence on A. flavus. The effect of all tested treatments on seed germination was statistically significant compared to the controls, whereby the number of germinated seeds declined as the seed infection rate increased. B. halotolerans strain B33 effectively managed seedborne fungal pathogens, thereby enhancing seed germination.

Utilizing environmentally friendly techniques for pathogen control in agriculture is a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to managing crop diseases. These techniques leverage the natural environment and ecosystem dynamics to reduce pathogen pressure, minimize the use of chemical inputs, and promote long-term agricultural productivity. Key strategies include crop rotation, intercropping, and maintaining biodiversity, all of which disrupt pathogen life cycles and enhance soil health. Biological control, such as introducing natural antagonists like beneficial fungi or bacteria, suppresses pathogen populations while promoting plant resilience. Additionally, practices such as mulching, soil solarization, and water management optimize environmental conditions to limit the development and spread of pathogens. These techniques also contribute to integrated pest management by providing sustainable, cost-effective solutions that reduce chemical dependency and mitigate climate change and other environmental impacts. This review discusses the importance of utilizing environmentally friendly techniques, highlighting their advantages, practical challenges, and limitations in different agro-ecological settings, and their role in advancing sustainable agriculture.

This study analyzes the impact of different nitrogen fertilization levels, in the form of UREA, on the growth and yield of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) under greenhouse conditions in Raška during the 2022 and 2023 growing seasons. The experiment was set up using a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications, on a 12 m² plot. UREA (46% N) was applied in various rates (0, 40, 80, 120, and 140 kg ha⁻¹) to evaluate its effect on spinach growth and productivity. Key parameters such as plant height, days taken to first cutting, number of leaves per plant, leaf length, fresh weight of leaves, and yield per pot and hectare were measured. The results showed significant differences in most of the analyzed parameters. As the N rate increased, plant height, number of leaves per plant, leaf length, and yield increased, with the highest values recorded at 140 kg ha⁻¹. However, excessive doses showed diminishing returns, particularly between 120 kg ha⁻¹ and 140 kg ha⁻¹. The control group exhibited the lowest values for all parameters. Additionally, earlier flowering and potentially reduced quality with higher nitrogen doses were observed. The study concludes that optimal nitrogen levels are crucial for spinach yield and quality, and a balanced approach to fertilization is necessary to achieve sustainable production while minimizing environmental risks.

Market conditions in which the agricultural sector does business are continuously changing and developing. The agricultural sector competes with the competition when the only constants in agricultural production are great turbulences of agroclimatic conditions, and permanent changes in the market. Those changes are happening rapidly, which causes oscillations in business results, and it often leads to disappointment and desertion of the agricultural sector, especially by young, mobile, and working people. This chapter aims to offer a concept of modern marketing, so its implementation into the agricultural sector would contribute to more efficient and effective work. Also, it would lead to better results for all partakers of agricultural sectors, especially agricultural producers. Today, the battle for a better and more profitable position of agricultural producers in domestic and foreign markets is unimaginable without applying strategies and tools of modern marketing. To master the competitive advantage and maintain it on the market for a long time is a complicated process for the biggest and richest companies of today. It is especially hard and complex for participants from the agricultural sector because of the countless specificities of agricultural producers, and agricultural production itself. The finding of the review and research is that domestic agricultural producers are the main, but the weakest link in the chain of the agricultural sector. They are faintly, or not at all prone to using marketing management, strategies, and tools of marketing, like market segmentation, targeting, product differentiation, as well as combining elements of the marketing mix in their business activities and their value offer to customers. By doing this, they significantly make their market position more difficult, and they reduce competitiveness on both domestic and foreign markets of agricultural products, or in a broader sense, the whole agricultural sector. The most current trends of modern marketing practice are represented in this review, together with solutions for their implementation into the agricultural sector.

Erysiphe corylacearum has recently been reported in northern Italy (Piedmont) and other European countries as the causal agent of a new emerging powdery mildew on hazelnut. This disease is much more dangerous than the common hazelnut powdery mildew caused by Phyllactinia guttata as it significantly reduces yield and quality of hazelnuts. This study aimed to perform morphological and molecular characterization of the fungal isolates from powdery mildew-infected plants in the Piedmont Italian region. Additionally, genetic diversity studies and pathogenicity tests were conducted. Thirty-six fungal isolates originating from symptomatic hazelnut plants exhibiting specific powdery mildew symptoms on the superior leaf side were identified morphologically as E. corylacearum. Single- and multilocus sequence typing of five loci (ITS, rpb2, CaM, GAPDH and GS) assigned all isolates as E. corylacearum. Multilocus and GAPDH phylogenetic studies resulted in the most efficient characterization of E. corylacearum. Studied fungal isolates were able to cause new emerging powdery mildew disease by fulfilling Koch’s postulates. The emergence of powdery mildew disease in Italy revealed the E. corylacearum subgrouping, population expansion, and high nucleotide similarity with other recently identified E. corylacearum hazelnut isolates. To contain this harmful disease and inhibit the fungus spread into new geographical zones, it will be necessary to implement more rigorous monitoring in neighboring hazelnut plantations near infected hazelnuts, use sustainable fungicides and search for new biocontrol agents.

Species of the genus Colletotrichum are among the most important plant pathogens globally, as they are capable of infecting many hosts—apple (Malus spp.) and other fruit and woody plant species—but also vegetable crops, cereals, legumes, and other annual and perennial herbaceous plants. The apple (Malus spp.) is attacked by various species from the genus Colletotrichum, whereby 27 different species from this genus have been described as the causative agents of apple bitter rot (ABR) and 15 as the cause of Glomerella leaf spot (GLS). These species generally belong to one of three species complexes: Colletotrichum acutatum, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Colletotrichum boninense. The largest number of apple pathogens of the genus Colletotrichum belong to the species complex C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides. However, further data on these species and the interactions between the species complexes of the genus Colletotrichum that cause these two apple diseases is needed for the development of effective control measures, thus ensuring successful and profitable apple cultivation. To contribute to this endeavor, a comprehensive review of the causative agents of ABR and GLS from the genus Colletotrichum is provided. In addition to presenting the species’ current names, distribution, economic significance, and the symptoms they cause in apple, their development cycle, epidemiology, and molecular detection strategies are described, with a particular emphasis on control measures.

The effects of climate change on harmful organisms are complex because other factors of influence are not constant, but are changing. In addition, climate change can affect harmful organisms differently or similarly, depending on which group of organisms they belong to: fungi, bacteria, viruses, insects, nematodes, etc. In fitopathogenic fungi, these effects are manifested in terms of: changes in biology; faster evolution due to longer seasons of the year; the emergence of new races or greater aggressiveness of existing species due to gene recombination; changes in geographical distribution, either towards the northern hemisphere or in areas of higher altitude; introduction of quarantine and invasive species, as well as expansion into new areas in relation to the area of origin; higher mycotoxin production; etc. For viruses and bacteria, which are transmitted by vectors, the impact of climate change on the presence, spreading and number of vectors is of special importance. The positive impact of climate change on different pests can be manifested in the form of: changes in biology and emergence of a higher number of generations; increased numbers and fertility; better overwintering; extended range of hosts; introduction of quarantine and invasive species; spreading to new areas; etc. The positive effects of climate change on harmful organisms are most often with a negative effect on the development of agriculture and food production, forestry development, biodiversity and the environment – due to possibility of greater economic damage, as well as greater needs for pesticides. Climate change can also affect host plants, with their loss of the natural basis of resistance being of particular importance. Although some progress has been made in monitoring and understanding climate change, there is still a need for many scientific, technical and institutional solutions to precisely plan, adjust and alleviate the effects of climate change on harmful organisms and hosts, as well as their interaction.

The needs of the population for a continuous supply and use of pears in the diet throughout the year caused that the fruits of this fruit species are usually not immediately brought to the market or used, but are stored in warehouses for a shorter or longer time after harvesting, during which they are often exposed to attack by various pathogenic microorganisms. Although there are no precise data on the losses caused by various pathogens on stored pear fruits in our country, it is quite certain that they are large, both due to the often inadequate storage conditions and the fact that less attention is paid to the storage of the harvested fruits than to their production. Phytopathogenic fungi are the most important cause of rot and deterioration of stored pear fruits. Therefore, the paper describes the characteristic symptoms of the 30 most important diseases of stored pear fruits caused by various pathogens, as well as an overview of other less significant pathogens that can appear on pear fruits during their storage. The measures for their suppression are especially emphasized and elaborated, so that the economic losses caused by these pathogens can be, if not completely avoided, at least reduced to a tolerable measure.

Environmental pollution is a big problem for all countries of the world, especially developing countries. Pollution is very present in our country and manifests itself through air, water and soil pollution, but also the increased presence of noise, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation in the environment. Environmental protection is an area of great interest for citizens and competent authorities, especially in the perspective of European integration, and represents a major challenge for the authorities of each country. The environment is one of the most important chapters in the negotiations for accession to the European Union (EU). This chapter deals with EU and Republic of Srpska regulations, with an analysis of the situation in various areas of the environment. It is the obligation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republic of Srpska to implement the aforementioned regulations into the national legislation. A major problem of environmental management is the implementation and application of regulations due to various factors such as: the state of industrial development, national policy, financial situation, lack of trained personnel and laboratories, etc.

The concept of sustainable use of pesticides implies a series of rules, procedures and skills in the use of pesticides that are prescribed by the relevant legislation in the European Union, and which countries that are in the process of joining it are obliged to follow and apply. These prescribed norms include the development of a national action plan to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides; application of the principle of integral protection of plants; establishing a continuous training system for professional users of pesticides, distributors and advisors; establishment of appropriate conditions for the sale and distribution of pesticides; handling and storage of pesticides and disposal of their packaging and residues; regular control of pesticide application devices; keeping records and databases; informing the public and raising the level of awareness about the sustainable use of pesticides; application of measures to reduce the risk of pesticide use; the application of special practices in the use of pesticides, including aerial spraying, special measures for the protection of aquatic environments and drinking water, the application of pesticides on public and green areas, the reduction of pesticide use in certain areas, and the protection of bees during the application of pesticides, as well as the application of risk indicators, reporting and exchange of information on the sustainable use of pesticides. The purpose of this legislation is to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides and reduce the risks and negative effects from the use of pesticides in a way that ensures a high degree of protection of human and animal health, along with the protection and preservation of the environment and biodiversity, as well as the introduction of mandatory application of the basic principles of integral protection of plants for control of harmful organisms, including alternative approaches and techniques, such as non-chemical plant protection measures with the aim of achieving sustainable and competitive agriculture.

In this paper, a comprehensive overview of the 'Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum' presence in Europe was provided. The analyzed findings revealed that, since the first appearance of this pathogen in Finland and Spain in 2008, it has spread to 13 new European countries. Therefore, 'Ca. L. solanacearum' has spread very quickly across the European continent, as evident from the emergence of new host plants within the Apiaceae, Urticaceae, and Polygonaceae families, as well as new haplotypes of this pathogen. Thus far, 5 of the 15 'Ca. L. solanacearum' haplotypes determined across the globe have been confirmed in Europe (haplotypes C, D, E, U, and H). Fully competent 'Ca. L. solanacearum' vectors include Bactericera cockerelli, Trioza apicalis, and B. trigonica; however, only T. apicalis and B. trigonica are presently established in Europe and are very important for plants from the Apiaceae family in particular. Moreover, psyllid species such as B. tremblayi, T. urticae, and T. anthrisci have also been confirmed positive for 'Ca. L. solanacearum'. Constant monitoring of its spread in the field (in both symptomatic and asymptomatic plants), use of sensitive molecular diagnostic techniques, and application of timely management strategies are, therefore, of utmost importance for the control of this destructive pathogen.

The agro-ecological and soil conditions of the Republic of Srpska provide the possibility of growing many agro-energy crops, which represent a great chance for agricultural producers who own lands with less favorable physical and chemical properties. The production and spreading of bioenergy crops have been exposed to sharply critics and suspicion for their economic justification. The basic problem is the identification of the most suitable biomass and the projecting of the process by which the energy from it should be extracted. Using the produced biomass would significantly reduce the consumption of fossil fuels, which Serbia and Republic of Srpska have in limited quantities. The great genetic potential of fertility has classified miscanthus in the group of the most important bio-energetic crops. By introducing these predominantly perennial plants into production, with slightly higher investments in the year of establishment and significantly less in the years of use, uncultivated agricultural land could be used and also the most non-agricultural areas and deposoles could be bring to purpose. Fresh above-ground biomass of miscanthus and Spanish reed plants, mowed in the panicle phenophase, is used to obtain biogas, while dry baled stalks without leaves are burned directly in cauldron plants (for example in thermal power plants) or used for the production of briquettes. The advantage of using miscanthus and Spanish reed for bio-fuel production compared to other field plants is their higher yield and higher amount of fuel obtained per unit area and, on the other hand, quantity of world food production is not reduced, because this species participates little in world needs for food of plant origin.

The modern world is facing many challenges such as population growth, the need to provide sufficient food, climate change, increasing environmental pollution, rising energy prices, new environmental regulations, high depletion of oil and other minerals, growing socio-environmental issues, as well as the need for energy security. All these challenges have led to significant progress in the research and development of renewable energy sources, and it is expected that in the search for alternative energy sources in the future the model of renewable energy production from biomass will be a goal to be pursued by most countries. However, in order for this task to be successfully completed in the coming period, it is necessary to overcome several challenges, among which the most important are the economic sustainability of biomass production and collection and its conversion into various forms of bioenergy. Bioenergy is becoming a central issue of sustainability as it reduces greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution and increases diversity and energy security. In this context, the contribution of modern and sustainable bioenergy must be significantly increased in final energy demand, as well as an increase in the share of sustainable low-carbon biofuels in transport fuels. In addition, carbon emissions should be gradually reduced based on life cycle estimates, using biofuels to replace fossil fuels. It should also increase global investment in sustainable and low-carbon bioenergy, including advanced and flexible biorefineries capable of producing energy and products based on biomass and bioeconomy. However, the expansion of the bioeconomy – defined as a set of activities related to innovation, development, production and use of biomass or processes of production of renewable energy, materials and chemical products – should be based on sustainable practices that guarantee greenhouse gas emission reductions and avoidance of adverse effects from ecological, economic and social point of view. Despite the growing consensus on the importance and urgency of accelerating the development of bioenergy and biofuels, investment is not as intensive as necessary, and the implementation of technologies encounters a number of barriers, such as large initial investments, financial risks, volatility in oil and other commodity prices and regulatory uncertainties. This chapter provides an overview of the potentials and future trends in the use of biomass for various types of bioenergy. Special emphasis is placed on the most significant challenges in the processing and use of biomass in the future. Data on the improvement of technologies in the use and processing of biomass in the future, including combustion, co-combustion, gasification, pyrolysis and combined heat and electrical energy, are presented. An overview of some of the most important biofuels of the future is also given, such as: biohydrogen, biobutanol, biooils and bio-dimethyl ether.

Pepper is attacked by numerous plant diseases caused by phytopathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses, interfering normal growth and development, reducing the yield and quality of fruits. Among the mentioned groups of pathogens, phytopathogenic viruses reduce the yield of pepper every year. The most common and economically important, identified in Republic of Srpska, are: Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV), Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). The paper describes the distribution, economic importance, hosts, transmission, symptoms, as well as control measures for mentioned viruses.