Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) in crops refers to the yield gain per unit of N available in status of soil. Genetic modification or breeding techniques ensure excellent N absorption from the soil, and efficient utilization can improve it. To improve NUE and reduce production losses initiated by low Nitrogen Efficiency (NE) in maximum yielded vegetable crops, the principle is to graft these crops onto rootstocks that can improve scion NE in both minimum-input and maximum-input crop structures. Grafting at vegetable species is horticultural technique that combines numerous scions and rootstocks to enhance biotic and abiotic stress tolerances. N‑efficient rootstock can enhance crop’s NUE, which relies upon genotypic variability of both scion and the root stock, as well as their interactions in the graft combination. This review that consolidates existing data on the adverse influences of low and high N enrichment in vegetable crops, highlighting significance of balanced N management to reach optimum growth, yield, and fruit quality, and the position of vegetable grafting for improving NUE by grafting with N‑efficient rootstocks at sustainable horticultural crop production. Additionally, we reviewed all the newest data regarding grafting using various vegetable rootstocks to enhance growth and development, NUE, yield, and quality. This report may help scientists and producers improve yield and quality at low and high N levels in vegetable crops. We assess the report’s findings on how grafting can enhance productivity in horticultural production systems at both low and high N conditions.

Soil contamination by heavy metals (HMs) has intensified with industrialization, mining, and intensive agriculture, creating an urgent need for sustainable remediation strategies. Conventional chemical and physical techniques are costly, disruptive, and difficult to apply at the field scale, emphasizing eco-friendly biological alternatives. This study investigated the combined remediation potential of the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis (H. pluvialis) and three Festuca arundinacea varieties (Nilüfer, Grande II, and Jaguar 4G) for removing cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) from contaminated soil. Increasing H. pluvialis doses enhanced Cd, Pb, and Zn accumulation in shoots and roots while decreasing Pb bioaccumulation factors. Translocation factors and overall phytoremediation efficiency improved for all metals following microalgal application, with Grande II showing the highest recovery. Post-harvest soil analyses revealed reductions of 57.14%, 20.31%, and 25.46% in Cd, Pb, and Zn concentrations, respectively, alongside a 2.69% decline in soil pH and a 5.34% rise in organic matter. The most effective treatment was 1.5 g kg-1H. pluvialis with Grande II. These findings demonstrate that optimizing microalgal dosage improves metal removal efficiency and supports soil restoration, providing a foundation for sustainable phytoremediation applications.

We aimed to investigate the rootstock effects on plant growth performance and root nutrient contents and uptake of pepper inbred line (IL) based on the physiological and morphological response mechanisms. Four IL were grafted with two rootstocks, and ungrafted scions were used as control plants. As a result, among grafted and control plants substantial (p < 0.001) variances were found in morphological, physiological parameters and K, Ca, Mg, Mn and Zn composition. Significantly a higher leaf area, rootstock and scion diameter, shoot fresh and dry biomasses was found in IL 'ER & Uuml; 1227' grafted with 'Scarface', significantly higher Ca and Mn composition were found in '21H-1-2' grafted with 'Scarface'; however, significantly higher root fresh-dry biomasses and Zn composition was recorded in 'ER & Uuml; 1227' grafted onto '46 KB F1' rootstock. 'Scarface' rootstock performed better than the '46 KB F1' rootstock; thus, it is advised as the best rootstock genotype with wide scion compatibility. As conclusion, vigorous rootstocks which could be illustrated beside an effective nutrient uptake, perform key functions in the enhancement of plant growth performance and root nutrient contents.

The present study aimed to evaluate the physiological and root morphological responses of six distinct snake melon (Cucumis melo var. flexuosus) genotypes under varying salinity levels. The experiment was implemented in a hydroponic system within climate-controlled environment in 2024 growth season. Six genotypes (Badem, Ege, Iraq 1, Iraq 2, Kerem, and Selin) were cultivated in 8 L pots filled with continuously aerated nutrient solution under control conditions and two salinity treatments (6 and 12 dS/m). Electrical conductivity (EC) levels were regulated by supplementing the nutrient solution with NaCl. Key parameters assessed included shoot and root fresh and dry weights, total root length, leaf area, leaf chlorophyll content, carotenoid concentration, average root diameter, total root volume, ion leakage, and macro- and microelement composition. The plants grown under 6 and 12 dS/m usually showed a lower crop growth performance than the control plants, illustrating that salt stress adversely affected crop growth under hydroponics. However, the genotypes Badem and Ege showed a moderate salt tolerance at 6 dS/m, while the genotypes Iraq 1 and Selin exhibited a high salt tolerance at 12 dS/m, indicating a significant genotypic variation and genotype × salinity interaction. Tolerance was linked to vigorous root morphology and leaf physiological activity under both moderate (6 dS/m) and high (12 dS/m) salinity.

Water and soil salinity are among the most significant ecological factors limiting agricultural productivity, especially in saline-affected regions. In vegetable crops, salt stress adversely affects physiological practices like water uptake, photosynthesis, and nutrient absorption, leading to stunted growth, wilting, and reduced yields. Numerous approaches have been developed to improve the salinity tolerance of vegetable plants, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Among these approaches, vegetable grafting, a horticultural practice, offers a suggesting alternative solution to overcome salt stress’ harmful outcomes. Grafting technology, a horticultural practice where the tissues of two different plant parts (rootstock and scion) are joined to grow as one, has emerged as a promising solution to enhance salt tolerance in vegetable crops. By utilizing salt-tolerant rootstocks, grafting improves root system development, enhances nutrient uptake, and activates protective biochemical responses, including increased antioxidant activity. Vegetable grafting has been utilized commercially on numerous crops such as melons, watermelons, muskmelon, cucumbers, tomatoes, sweet peppers, eggplants, to improve tolerances to type of biotic and abiotic conditions, like salinity, alkalinity, waterlogging, high or low temperatures, drought, and heavy metal toxicity, as well as to enhance crop yield and quality. This review aims to present the adverse effects of salt stress at plants, the potential of grafting technology in mitigating salt stress in vegetable crops, and examining the physiological, biochemical, and morphological benefits of grafting by using salt resistant rootstocks under saline conditions. Furthermore, the paper highlights successful case studies and research findings that demonstrate the effectiveness of grafting in improving salt tolerance in various vegetable species using different rootstocks on improving plant growth, photosynthetic capacity, crop yield and quality. The integration of biotechnological and genetic engineering approaches with grafting also holds potential to further enhance its efficacy. The future of grafting technology in sustainable agriculture is promising, offering a viable solution to maintain crop productivity and resilience in the face of increasing salinity challenges worldwide. We conclude that vegetable grafting has great potential for maintaining and improving productivity in salt-stressed agricultural systems.

Among the abiotic stresses, it is not just only the nitrogen that is the limiting factor in crop growth and yields, but also due to the shortage and uneven distribution of water resources, drought stress has become a most critical circumstances restricting sustainable crop production. The aim of this study was to determine genotypic differences in the Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) of some local and hybrid tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum L.) genotypes and to assess whether grafting with rootstocks could improve the NUE and drought tolerance of susceptible tomato scions. Plants were grown hydroponically under high N (3.0 mM) supply treated with drought stress (10

Çalışmada Türkiye’nin farklı bölgelerinden temin edilen kıl, sivri ve dolma biber saf hatların ve farklı biber anaçlarının büyüme, bitkisel gelişim ve yaprak fizyolojik özelliklerinin belirlenmesidir. Çalışma sonucunda güçlü kök yapısına olanlar ve zayıf gelişen saf hatlar belirlenerek, bir sonraki çalışmada güçlü kök yapısına sahip olanlar üzerine zayıf gelişen saf hatların aşılanması ile güçlü köklerin bitkisel gelişim üzerindeki etkisi test edilmiştir. Çalışma Erciyes Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi Bahçe Bitkileri Bölümü’ne ait olan serada 3 tekrarlı olarak 8 L’lik plastik kovalarda sürekli hava sirkülasyonunun sağlandığı besin çözeltisinde yapılmış; kıl biber , sivri ve dolmalık biber saf hatları ve farklı biber anaçları tarama-seçim testine tabii tutulmuştur. Bitkilerde vejetatif aksam (gövde+yaprak) ve kök yaş ağırlıkları, kök/gövde oranı, ana gövde uzunluğu, yan dal ve yaprak sayısı, yaprak alanı, fotosentez ve yaprak klorofil içeriği belirlenmiştir. Çalışmanın sonuçlarına göre, biber saf hatları arasından 29H-1 yaprak klorofil içeriği, kök/gövde oranı ve kök yaş ağırlığı gibi parametreler bakımından istatistiki olarak en iyi sonucu verirken, 33H-1-2 ise fotosentez ve yaprak klorofil içeriği (SPAD) bakımından istatistiki olarak en iyi neticeleri vermiştir. Anaç adayları arasından Güçlü F1 anacı fotosentez, yaprak klorofil içeriği, ana gövde uzunluğu ve kök/gövde oranı gibi parametreler bakımından istatistiki olarak en iyi sonucu verirken, Yaocali F1 anacı ise vejetatif aksam (gövde+yaprak) ve kök yaş ağırlığı gibi parametreler bakımından istatistiki olarak en iyi neticeleri vermiştir.

This study was conducted to determine salt-tolerance levels of different pepper genotypes and to determine of correlation the efficiency of in vitro and hydroponic culture salt-testing procedures. For this purposes, 7 different pepper genotypes were subjected to control (0 mM) and 5 different NaCl levels 50, 100, 125, 150 mM in in vitro and hydroponic culture to determine salt-tolerance. Different pepper genotypes exhibited different responses to different NaCl doses and significant correlations were observed between in vitro and hydroponic culture testing for some of the investigated parameters. In vitro germination had the significant correlation with Shoot Fresh Weight (0.80) and Root Dry Weight (0.85). On the other hand, in vitro plant height highly correlated with hydroponic NaCl testing parameters and had the highest correlation with Root Dried Weight (0.71). There were also high correlations between in vitro root length and hydroponic NaCl testing parameters such Shoot Fresh Weight (0,84), Root Dry Weight (0.85) and Leaf Area (0.77). Present findings proved that in vitro salt-testing was a simple and cheap method. Thus, it could be preferred by the breeders just to get reliable outcomes in a short time.

Soil fertility is declining in low-input agriculture due to insufficient fertilizer application by small-scale farmers. On the other hand, concerns are rising regarding the environmental pollution of both air and water in high-input agriculture due to the excessive use of N fertilizers in short growing seasons for vegetable crops, which is directly linked to the health of human beings and environmental safety. This study aimed to determine genotypic differences in the Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) levels of different leafy vegetable species (Arugula, Spinach, Cress, Parsley, and Dill) grown hydroponically under two different N rates, low N (0.3 mM) and high N (3.0 mM), and to identify the plant traits that are contributing to NUE. A nutrient solution experiment was conducted between March and April 2024 by using an aerated Deep-Water Culture (DWC) technique in a fully automated climate room with a completely randomized block design (CRBD) with three replications for five weeks. The results indicated that shoot growth, as well as root morphological and leaf physiological responses, was significantly (p < 0.001) affected by genotype, the N rate, and genotype–N rate interactions. Shoot growth in some vegetable species (Arugula, Spinach, and Cress) was significantly higher under a low N than a high N rate, illustrating that they have a great capability for NUE under low N stress conditions. Similar results were also recorded for the root growth of the N-efficient species under low N rates. The NUE levels of these species were closely associated with leaf physiological (leaf area, leaf chlorophyll index (SPAD), photosynthesis, and total leaf chlorophyll (a + b) and carotenoids) and root morphological (root length, root volume, and average root diameter) characteristics. These plant traits could be useful indicators for the selection and breeding of ‘N-efficient’ leafy vegetable species for sustainable low-input agriculture systems in the future. However, further investigation should be carried out at the field level to confirm their commercial production viability.

Salt stress is a significant abiotic factor that constrains agricultural productivity by impairing plant growth, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Vegetables, ranging from sensitive to moderately tolerant to salinity, experience adverse effects such as disruptions in seed germination, growth, flowering, and fruit development. Salinity hampers water uptake from the soil, as higher salt concentrations in the root zone increase the energy required by plants to absorb water. Sodium salts, in particular, interfere with the uptake of essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, leading to nutritional imbalances. Furthermore, salinity induces oxidative and osmotic stress, ion toxicity, and hormonal disturbances, while also heightening plants‘ susceptibility to diseases. Crops in the Cucurbitaceae family, such as Cucumis sativus (cucumber) and Citrullus lanatus (watermelon), are known to exhibit diverse physiological and biochemical strategies to cope with salinity, including efficient ion transport regulation, osmolyte production, and antioxidant activity. Crops in the Cucurbitaceae family, such as Cucumis sativus (cucumber) and Citrullus lanatus (watermelon), exhibit diverse physiological strategies to cope with salinity. These traits are critical due to their economic significance in global agriculture. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial due to the economic significance of this family in global agriculture. This review examines the effects of salt stress on plant growth and development, explores tolerance mechanisms, and highlights the potential of crops from the Cucurbitaceae family to contribute to sustainable agricultural practices.

This is the first hydroponic study that evaluated the role of the heterotic plant characters of crossbreeding progenies and accessions which were used as rootstock for watermelon (scion) to improve the nitrogen (N) efficiency of this crop by grafting. The target of the research was to evaluate if grafting could enhance the nitrogen efficiency of watermelon through examining the responses of heterotic plant characters of crossbreeding rootstocks in the shoot development at the agronomical stage, root developments at the morphological stage, and leaf growth at various physiological stages. A hydroponic experiment was conducted by using an aerated deep-water culture (DWC) system in a well-equipped growth chamber of Erciyes University’s Plant Physiology Laboratory located at Kayseri, Türkiye. A watermelon cultivar Crimson Tide (CT) was grafted onto watermelon cultivars of Calhoun Gray (CG), Charleston Gray (Cha. G), and accessions of PI 296341 and PI 271769, the crossbreed progenies of Calhoun Gray × PI 296341, Calhoun Gray × PI 271769, and Charleston Gray × PI 296341. Plants were grown in 8 L plastic containers filled continuously with aired stock nutrient solution under two nitrogen (N) doses (low dose N: 0.3 mM unit N, and high dose N: 3.0 mM unit N) in a completely randomized block design (RBD) which was replicated three times, for six weeks. The grafted plants usually showed a higher crop growth performance than the self-grafted control plants, illustrating that nitrogen efficiency was significantly enhanced with respect to rootstocks of crossbreed progenies under a low N dose and high N dose. The N efficiency of grafted watermelon (CT) was improved by the high manifestation of heterosis in some root morphological characters (vigor root development and active root mechanism) of some of the crossbreeding rootstocks (Calhoun Gray × PI 271769) particularly in low-N conditions. Additionally, some of the crossbreeding rootstocks (Charleston Gray × PI 296341) exhibited high heterosis, which led to improving the N efficiency of grafted watermelon (CT) by inducing leaf physiological responses under high N supply. This clearly indicated that heterosis plays a crucial role in exploiting the genetic diversity in the N efficiency of watermelon. Therefore, these heterotic plant traits may be vital for the selection and breeding of nitrogen-efficient rootstocks for both small-scale and large-scale commercial farming in the nearby future.

Due to insufficient fertilizer application by small-scale farmers, soil fertility is declining in low-input agriculture while environmental pollution of both air and water is rising in high-input agriculture due to excessive nitrogen (N) fertilizers application. However, the efficiency of N fertilizers is frequently low, since plants take up often less than 50

Demand for low-cost and affordable alternating sources of plant nutrient responses to boost the nutrient level of damaged arable farmlands has been a main concern for soil scientists, agronomists, and local farmers. The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of fish wastewater on the growth parameters, yield, and biomass productivity of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) as compared by using in aerated nutrient solution under deep water culture (DWC) technique. The experiment was carried out to investigate shoot and root fresh and dry weight, total leaf number, leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD), photosynthesis, leaf total chlorophyll (a+ b), leaf total carotenoid content, total leaf area, leaf NRA activity, total root length, root volume and average root diameter. Lettuce plants were examined by using an aerated deep-water culture (DWC) technique in a fully automated climate room for six weeks. The seedlings were transplanted onto 8 L continuously aerated pots containing mix of different ratios of fish effluent water with tap water with six different treatments (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6) and replicated three times. The fish wastewater effluents did not reduce the growth of lettuce plants. Shoot and root fresh and dry matter, total leaf number, leaf total chlorophyll (a+ b), leaf total carotenoid content, total leaf area, leaf NRA activity, total root length, root volume and average root diameter of lettuce plants were significantly increased with under T3 treatment (Tap water + 1.5 mM N + 50 ml Nutrient solution + 8 ml Fe + 1000 ml Fish effluent water). However, the lettuce plants grown under T4 treatment (Tap water + 1.5 mM N + 250 ml Fish effluent water) had the lowest shoot and root fresh matter, total leaf number, photosynthesis, total leaf area, leaf NRA activity, total root length, root volume and average root diameter. The compost derived from the fish wastewater plays an important role in supplying the nutrients for cultivating the lettuce plants. Also, in this study appreciable nutrients were significantly obtained in treatments treated with fish wastewater, as compared with the ground (tap) water. Thus, grown lettuce with aquaculture is a good source of nutrition for human consumption.

The genotypic differences in nitrogen (N) utilization efficiency of third backcrossed (BC3) progenies of Sena (Capsicum annuum L.; recurrent parent) and Kopan (Chile penguin; donor parent) pepper plants were determined by examining the changes in the shoot growth at agronomical, root growth at morphological and leaf development at physiological levels under high and low N rates. A hydroponic experiment was conducted by using an aerated deep water culture (DWC) technique in a controlled growth chamber in the spring 2015 growing season. As plant materials, five pepper plants (BC3‑1, BC3‑2, BC3‑3, BC3‑4, BC3-5) were selected from the third backcrossed (BC3) progenies of Sena and Kopan. Plants were grown in 8 L pots filled continuously aerated nutrient solution under at low N (0.5 mM N) and high N (3.0 mM N) rates in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications for 6 weeks. At the experiment plant growth, leaf, shoot and root fresh and dry weights, total leaf area, leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD), total root length, total root volume and average root diameter in pepper plants were assessed. Significant differences in N efficiency were observed between the backcrossed pepper progenies and their respective parents. Leaf, and shoot fresh and dry weights, total leaf area, and leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD) of pepper plants were significantly increased with increasing N rate: 3.0 mM N increased leaf fresh weight by 149.8%, shoot fresh weight by 116.4%, shoot dry weight by 119.6%, total leaf area by 94.54%, and SPAD by 21.28% at BC3‑3 plants as compared to progenies of third backcrosses and their respective parents. Regarding root morphological parameters, pepper plants under high N rate displayed a lower performance than plants under low N rate. Increasing N rate led to a decrease in root fresh weight by 37.96%, and root dry weight by 35.93%. Overall, the N efficiency of the progeny of BC3‑3 was highly associated with vigorous root growth (root fresh and dry weight, total root length and volume) and photosynthetically active leaves (total leaf area, and leaf chlorophyll index) under low N conditions, which could be useful to select and breed “N efficient” pepper varieties.

The study aimed to evaluate the effect of three different manganese (Mn) concentrations on the plant growth, leaf chlorophyll, carotenoid content, photosynthetic activity, and root morphological development in eggplant (Solanum melongena L. ‘Adana cv. Dolmalık’ and ‘Köksal cv. F1’). Plants were grown continuously in aerated nutrient solution by using a deep-water culture (DWC) technique in a fully automated climate room. A randomized block design with three replications was used. Both excessive (400 µM) and insufficient (0.4 µM) Mn concentrations in the root zone reduced the shoot fresh and dry matter, branch number, leaf area, and leaf chlorophyll content in both examined genotypes in comparison with optimal Mn concentrations (200 µM). Köksal cv. F1 produced higher shoot and root biomasses, root:shoot ratio, total leaf number, leaf total chlorophyll and carotenoid content, total leaf area, and average root diameter at the low concentration of Mn. Conversely, Adana cv. Dolmalık produced significantly higher stem length, shoot and root biomasses, total root length and root volume at high Mn concentrations. Overall, both deficit and excess Mn nutrition could induce disorders in the growth and development of eggplant which may reduce crop yield.

In this study, a new agrotextile structure containing ammonium and nitrate fertilizers which is called controlled release fertilizer (CRF) was designed. The prepared structure was used in lettuce growth trials both in the absence and presence of dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) inhibitor. In order to better monitor nitrogen balance in the soil and total nitrogen amounts in the whole system including soil, plant, and agrotextile and thus revealing the efficacy of DMPP usage depending on fertilizer application type ((traditional (TF) or agrotextile (CRF)) and irrigation regime (100% and 50%), plants were harvested at three growth stages. Generally, independent of fertilizer application type, the effect of DMPP usage was more pronounced at 100% irrigation regime. Presence of DMPP and 100% irrigation in traditional fertilizer (TF) application increased soil ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) by 12.5% and 11.1% and decreased soil nitrate nitrogen (NO3--N) by 3.8% and 8.9% at 1st and 2nd harvest stages, respectively. DMPP usage in agrotextile (CRF) application with 100% irrigation improved NH4+-N by 353% and reduced NO3--N by 14.9% in the soil, when especially the 2nd harvest stage was considered. According to soil N results, it can be said that the DMPP usage increased the soil inorganic N content in both TF and CRF applications. But, plant N uptake results showed that the usage of DMPP either didn't change or worsen the nitrogen use efficiency in the TF and CRF applications, respectively. [GRAPHICS] .

In this study, two hydroponic experiments were carried out in a nutrient solution growth system in a growth chamber to determine the morphological and physiological background of nitrogen efficiency in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). In the first experiment, 16 pepper inbred lines and 2 pepper commercial rootstocks were screened under 2 nitrogen (N) doses (0.3 mM and 3.0 mM N) in a completely randomized block design with 3 replications. In the second experiment, four pepper lines (N-efficient: 21-H- 1-1 and AH-2-3, N-inefficient: ERU 1248 and 24-H-6) selected in the first stage of the study were grafted reciprocally and tested under 2 N doses. By using nitrogen efficient lines (21-H-1-1/24-H-6, 21-H-1-1/ERU 1248, AH-2-3/ERU 1248, AH-2-3/24-H-6) as rootstocks increased growth and biomass production compared to non-grafted control plants (N-inefficient), while using N-efficient lines (1248/21-H-1-1, ERU 1248/AH-2-3, 24-H-6/21-H-1-1, 24-H-6/AH-2-3) as scion (ERU caused lower shoot growth than the control (N-efficient). It is also seen that well-developed strong root systems are the most important factor contributing to N use efficiency in pepper.

To assess whether grafting could improve the nitrogen (N) efficiency of potato cultivars and to determine which physiological and morphological characteristics are predominantly contributing to N efficiency, a hydroponic experiment was conducted. Two contrasting potato cultivars (Agria: N‑efficient and Van Gogh: N‑inefficient) were grafted reciprocally onto each other. Grafted and non-grafted control plants were grown in a growth chamber for 42 days in 8 L pots filled with continuously aerated nutrient solution under two N rates (Low-N : 0.5 mM N and High-N : 3.0 mM N) by using a deep water culture (DWC) technique. The shoot and root fresh (FW) and dry (DW) weights, main stem length, number of leaves, total leaf area, photosynthetic activity of leaves, shoot and root N concentration, total N uptake, total root length and root volume of potato plants were significantly increased with increased N rate. The grafted plants produced significantly higher above ground biomass than non-grafted ones, indicating that N efficiency was significantly improved by the reciprocally grafting under low and high N rates. Non-grafted cv. Agria showed higher numbers of shoot and root FW and DW, total leaf area, intensity of photosynthesis net measurements, compared to non-grafted cv. Van Gogh under both N rates. In reciprocal grafting, the growth performance of cv. Agria slightly increased when it was grafted onto cv. Van Gogh, whereas a significant increase in crop growth performance was recorded when cv. Van Gogh was grafted onto cv. Agria. The N efficiency of non-grafted cv. Agria was closely associated with its vigorous root growth and active root system under both N conditions. Same root morphological characteristic could not be exhibited by the N‑inefficient cv. Van Gogh. Our study suggested that root morphological characteristics are contributing more than shoot characteristics to N efficiency of potatoes. These traits could be useful characters to breed/select N‑efficient potato rootstocks for sustainable agriculture in the future.