Jeevamrutha has gained importance in sustainable agricultural practices and environmental management because of its organic bio-formulation. It is prepared using soil, jaggery, pulse flour, cow excreta, which together provide a rich medium for microbial proliferation. Application of Jeevamrutha increases soil nutrients and biological activity and thereby makes essential macronutrients easily available to crops. It supports long-term soil health restoration through improved soil structure, increased organic carbon content, and better moisture retention. Jeevamrutha contributes to plant growth and vigour and enhances the ability of plants to cope with biotic and abiotic stresses through microbial metabolites and enzymes. Jeevamrutha can be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizers as it is cost effective for small and marginal farms. This review critically synthesizes existing literature on the composition, application method, agronomic benefits, and environmental impact in promoting biodiversity, reducing chemical inputs, and supporting sustainable and economically viable agriculture systems.

In plants, pathogenic infection causes oxidative damage to the host plants and eventually leads to the destruction of the plant’s metabolism due to the oxidation of essential biomolecules. In this investigation, we monitored the effects of fusarium wilt and damping-off mediated generation of Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and their effective disposal by the antioxidative defence system in tomato plants. The main aim of the current research work was to assess the seed priming remedial effects of Trichoderma virens (Tv) (1 × 107 spores/mL) as a biocontrol agent and jasmonic acid (JA) (1 μM) as a chemical inducer against the pathogen- induced oxidative stress in diseased plants. Thirty days old primed and unprimed tomato seedlings were inoculated with Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Fol) (1 × 106 spores/mL) and Rhizoctonia solani (Rs) (2

The combined application of biochar and Trichoderma spp. represents a promising strategy for enhancing plant resilience and soil health; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying their synergistic interactions remain poorly understood and inadequately integrated. This review critically synthesizes evidence from transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic, and microbiome analyses to elucidate how biochar-Trichoderma interactions modulate plant defense signaling pathways and stress adaptation responses. Transcriptomic analyses reveal context-dependent activation of the jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), and ethylene (ET) signaling pathways. Correspondingly, proteomic and metabolomic datasets demonstrate variable yet recurrent upregulation of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, reactive oxygen species (ROS)-scavenging enzymes, and phenylpropanoid-derived metabolites. Notably, accumulating evidence suggests that these molecular responses are highly context-dependent, varying substantially with soil type, biochar physicochemical characteristics, and Trichoderma strain specificity. We critically examine major methodological limitations in existing omics investigations, including inadequate reproducibility under field conditions and insufficient integration of molecular and ecological datasets. Finally, we propose a systems biology framework for designing functionally optimized biochar–microbe formulations and identify research priorities for translating insights into agronomically robust and field-deployable technologies.

The development of eco-friendly biocontrol solutions is critical to reducing reliance on synthetic fungicides, which contribute to environmental pollution, pathogen resistance and health hazards. This study investigates the encapsulation of Trichoderma harzianum, a beneficial fungal biocontrol agent, within alginate-bentonite (BNT) clay composite beads to enhance its stability and efficacy. Sodium alginate served as the primary matrix, while BNT clay was incorporated to improve mechanical strength and thermal resistance. The resulting microbeads exhibited uniform morphology, ensuring effective protection and sustained release of fungal conidia under varying environmental conditions. Structural and thermal properties were analysed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), confirming the composite’s durability and heat tolerance. Encapsulated conidia maintained high viability over six months, demonstrating the formulation’s potential for long-term storage. The findings suggest that alginate-BNT encapsulation significantly improves the shelf life and field performance of microbial pesticides, offering a viable alternative to chemical treatments. By combining biopolymer science with clay-based enhancements, this research contributes to sustainable crop protection strategies. The proposed method aligns with green chemistry principles, providing a scalable solution for agricultural applications while minimising ecological impact.

Sustainable agriculture increasingly relies on eco-friendly and biocontrol strategies, and this study aimed to screen Trichoderma isolates for cellulase and protease activity associated with plant growth promotion and disease suppression. The present study was conducted to evaluate the enzymatic potential of several Trichoderma isolates collected from distinct agroclimatic zones of India. The results revealed substantial inter-isolate variation in cellulase and protease activity. Isolate PBT (Punjab Trichoderma) 13 recorded higher protease activity and cellulase activity, whereas isolates such as PBT1 and PBT21 exhibited relatively lower enzymatic activity. This study provides region-specific evidence on the qualitative variability of cellulase and protease activity among Trichoderma isolates, highlighting enzyme-based screening as a practical preliminary approach for biocontrol selection. The observed inter-isolate differences in cellulase and protease activity reflect ecological adaptation and highlight the importance of enzymatic screening for the preliminary selection of promising Trichoderma isolates with potential application in sustainable plant disease management.

The present study focuses on induced systemic resistance (ISR), where secondary metabolites and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins are activated after the application of resistance inducers following the salicylic acid pathway. Biochar was used as an inducer to activate phenolic compounds and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, helping to combat Phomopsis vexans, which causes Phomopsis blight in brinjal. Physical and biochemical analysis showed biochar has significantly improved the yield of traits of the plant and reduced the amount of infection by increasing levels of total proteins, total phenols and sugar content. Increased levels of proteins and phenolic compounds with decreased levels of disease severity as shown by regression analysis, indicating a negative correlation (r) between soil pH, soil electrical conductivity (EC), plant height, number of branches, fruit yield, peroxidase activity, total protein content, total phenols and disease severity. The treatment T13 with 3 % biochar, Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens was found to be the best treatment that exhibited positive effects on yield attributing traits and managed disease severity (22.2 %), followed by biochar concentrations of 3.5 % (T6) and 3 % (T5) alone with disease severities of 24.42 % and 26.6 %, respectively. Mixed application of biochar, T. harzianum and P. fluorescens has shown a synergistic effect on yield attributing traits and contributed to improving final yield and reducing disease severity. The data indicated a negative correlation between disease severity and yield attributing parameters, underscoring the effectiveness of this integrated approach in promoting plant resilience and productivity.

Trichoderma spp. is widely recognized and employed as effective biocontrol agents, providing a natural approach to managing plant diseases. These fungi, commonly found in soil, utilize multiple mechanisms to suppress plant pathogens, making them important tools in sustainable agriculture. However, the biocontrol efficacy of Trichoderma spp. is influenced by several environmental factors that impact their growth, sporulation and antagonistic activity against phytopathogens. This research investigates how abiotic factors such as pH, temperature, water activity (aw) and electrical conductivity (EC) affect the efficacy of Trichoderma spp. as biocontrol agents against plant pathogens. Controlled laboratory tests were evaluated for conidial production, growth rates and morphological changes under varying environmental conditions. The results indicated that the ideal water activity (aw 0.985) and temperature (25 °C) considerably increased conidial production and biomass growth. A pH level of 6.5 and an EC of 12.92 dS/m were identified as ideal conditions for optimal growth and sporulation. These results underscore the importance of environmental factors in improving the effectiveness of Trichoderma spp., offering actionable suggestions to enhance its use as a biocontrol agent across diverse farming systems, while also recognizing the importance of these factors in improving the large-scale production of T. harzianum for both agricultural and industrial purposes, especially in biocontrol application.

Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) are emerging contaminants in soil ecosystems that influence microbial communities and key ecological processes through complex physicochemical and biological interactions. This review synthesizes current knowledge on MNP-microbe interactions, highlighting the central role of the eco-corona, which governs particle bioavailability and mediates interactions with microbial cells in realistic soil environments. At the nanoscale, MNPs exhibit distinct molecular mechanisms, including surface charge-driven interactions, hydrophobic insertion into lipid bilayers, and cellular internalization, leading to oxidative stress and membrane disruption. The formation of plastisphere biofilms is identified as a critical factor shaping microbial community dynamics and acting as a hotspot for antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) enrichment and horizontal gene transfer (HGT). In addition, the impacts of weathered plastics, additive leaching, and co-contaminant transport are discussed in relation to their enhanced ecological risks. The review also adopts a critical perspective on microbial degradation, distinguishing superficial surface modifications from true biodegradation involving polymer depolymerization and mineralization, and highlights the limited evidence for effective degradation of conventional plastics. Despite recent advances, significant knowledge gaps remain regarding long-term environmental behavior, standardized analytical approaches, and realistic soil conditions, underscoring the need for more integrated and mechanistic research to better understand the ecological implications of MNP contamination.

This research investigates the synergistic impact of Trichoderma asperellum and biochar in sustainable plant disease management. Through a series of in vitro assays, dual culture techniques, and poison food methods, the investigation reveals that combining T. asperellum with biochar significantly inhibits the growth of Pythium aphanidermatum, achieving up to 85.92% inhibition at optimized concentrations. Additionally, biochar supplementation enhances cellulase enzyme activity and protein production, with the highest levels observed at 3% biochar. The integration of biochar within submerged fermentation systems establishes a microhabitat conducive to microbial enzyme synthesis, boosting ecological efficacy and supporting environmentally friendly disease control. The findings underscore the potential of this approach to reduce reliance on synthetic fungicides, improve agricultural productivity, and foster eco-friendly pest management. Future research should aim to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms, optimize biochar formulations, and conduct field-scale validations to ensure practical applicability across diverse agro-ecosystems.

BackgroundSoil-borne pathogens such as Sclerotium rolfsii (Agroathelia rolfsii Sacc.) and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri pose serious threats to chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) production. Trichoderma spp. are widely recognized in modern agriculture as effective biocontrol agents due to their ability to produce several lytic enzymes, including chitinases, glucanases and proteases, which contribute to the inhibition of plant pathogens.ObjectivesThis study aimed to screen Trichoderma isolates for protease and chitinase activity, evaluate their antagonistic potential against two chickpea pathogens, and assess the synergistic effects of Trichoderma and biochar in disease suppression and plant growth promotion. This study investigated the protease and chitinase activities of different Trichoderma isolates and evaluated their synergistic potential with biochar in promoting defense-related enzymes in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.).MethodsA total of 21 Trichoderma isolates were screened for protease and chitinase activity. Four potent strains—T. harzianum (PBT13), T. virens (PBT3), T. lixii (PBT14), and T. asperellum (PBT4)—were selected for further evaluation. Antagonistic activity against F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceri and S. rolfsii was assessed using dual culture assays and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The extracellular chitinase activity of the most active strain was quantified, and its inhibitory effect on pathogenic growth was determined. The combined application of T. harzianum and rice husk biochar significantly influenced disease incidence, defense enzyme activity, germination, chlorophyll content, sclerotia formation, and Trichoderma survivability under greenhouse and field conditions.ResultsAmong the tested isolates, T. harzianum (PBT13) showed the highest enzymatic activity and strong antagonism against both pathogens. Extracellular chitinase activity peaked at 60 U/mL, suppressing in vitro growth of F. oxysporum f. sp. ciceri by 95.95% and S. rolfsii by 97.10%. Greenhouse/field trials revealed that combining T. harzianum with rice husk biochar significantly reduced disease incidence, enhanced plant defense, enzyme activity, improved germination and chlorophyll content, reduced sclerotia formation, and promoted Trichoderma survival in soil.ConclusionThe study demonstrates that enzyme-active Trichoderma strains, particularly T. harzianum (PBT13), in combination with rice husk biochar, provides a sustainable and synergistic approach for managing soil-borne diseases in chickpea. This integrated strategy not only suppresses pathogens but also improves plant health and resilience, offering a viable alternative to chemical fungicides.

Introduction:This study aims to identify and characterize four Trichoderma isolates using molecular techniques, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) profiling. Methods:The antagonistic activity of these isolates was assessed against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri (FOC) and Sclerotium rolfsii (SR) using a dual culture technique. The synergistic effect of Trichoderma harzianum (accession no. PP256488) combined with biochar (BC) was evaluated for plant growth enhancement and disease suppression. Four Trichoderma isolates (T. harzianum, T. asperellum, T. virens, and T. lixii) were identified through ITS region analysis, VOC profiling, and FTIR spectroscopy. Results:Molecular analysis confirmed their distinct identities, and GC-MS analysis revealed 37 VOCs out of 162 with antipathogenic properties. Unique FTIR peaks were recorded at 3271.96 cm-1 for T. virens, 2800-2900 cm-1 for T. asperellum, and 2850-2950 cm-1 for both T. lixii and T. harzianum. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of T. harzianum revealed mycoparasitic structures, including hyphal coils, penetration holes, and appressoria, indicating effective pathogen interaction. The combined application of Trichoderma and biochar (T9) significantly enhanced root length (9.23 cm), plant height (26.03 cm), and root mass (43.33 g) in chickpea plants. Moreover, treatments (T9) and (T10) reduced the disease incidence in chickpeas, decreasing fusarium wilt by 27% and collar rot by 33%, respectively. Conclusion:This sustainable approach exhibits the potential of combined application of Trichoderma and biochar which can enhance plant growth and reduce disease incidence, and improve food security.

Sclerotium rolfsii is a devastating soil borne pathogen causing collar rot in chickpea, leading to significant crop yield losses. Sustainable diseases management strategies are required to reduce dependence on chemical fungicides and mitigate environmental hazards risks. Biochar, a carbon-rich soil amendment, improves soil health and enhances soil microbial activity, aiding in soil borne disease suppression. Cassia fistula, known for its bioactive compounds, exhibits antifungal properties that can prevent S. rolfsii. Additionally, Trichoderma harzianum, is effective biocontrol agent, promotes plant growth and disease suppression; thus, making the integrated use of these components a promising approach for controlling of S. rolfsii in chickpea cultivation. Chickpea plants were treated with 3

The macropores of biochar provide a suitable habitat for microbial growth, and its high carbon content serves as an energy source for beneficial microbes. This study evaluated the potential of biochar as a carrier for Trichoderma in managing Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in chickpeas. Biochar application reduced plant disease severity by 36.5% and increased plant root mass by 23.3%. For this, three types of biochar, wheat straw, organic kitchen waste, and hardwood were tested with Trichoderma, analyzing such as organic C, total N, P, K, Mg, and Ca; pH, and ash content. Trichoderma populations were monitored with biochar carrier of different mesh sizes (250, 150, 75, and 45 µm) for up to 6 weeks after inoculation. Hardwood biochar at 150 µm supported the highest Trichoderma population, reaching 33.5 × 105 CFU·g−1 after 6 weeks. Hardwood biochar also achieved the maximum disease suppression compared to other biochar types. This research highlights the dual role of biochar in enhancing plant growth and controlling disease, contributing to the standardization of biochar use in agricultural practices.

Applying biochar appears to be the most promising emerging tool for managing plant diseases. Biochar induces plant resistance, sorbs allelopa­thic and fungitoxic compounds and supports an increase in beneficial microorganisms altering soil properties that improve health and nutrient availability. We got the notion that using biochar would result in spectacular outcomes. We examine studies on the use and application of biochar to help researchers and readers broaden their understanding of the potential use of biochar in treating plant diseases with improved soil physics and chemistry.

Chickpeas contribute to half of the pulses produced in India and are an excellent source of protein, fibers, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. However, the combination of the wilt and root rot diseases drastically lowers its yield. The use of antagonist microbes that restrict the growth of other phytopathogens is an ecofriendly approach to combat the serious threats raised by the plant pathogens. Trichoderma spp. are well known as biocontrol agents, especially against soil- and seed-borne phytopathogens. In this study, 21 Trichoderma isolates that were collected from different rhizospheric soils were evaluated against two notorious soil-borne pathogens, such as Fusarium oxysproum f.sp. ciceri and Sclerotium rolfsii. The maximum percentage of inhibition against the tested pathogens was observed in Trichoderma isolate PBT13 (72.97%, 61.1%) followed by PBT3 (72.23%, 59.3%). The mycelial extension rate method, dual culture (antagonism), production of cell-wall degrading enzymes (CWDs), and antifungal metabolites (by GC-MS) were used as selection criteria for potent Trichoderma isolates. Among the 21 isolates, PBT3, PBT4, PBT9, and PBT13 exhibited high antagonistic activity, production of antifungal metabolites, and chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase activity. These four species were subjected to molecular characterization using an internal transcribed spacer (ITS 1 and ITS4). The results of molecular characterization identified the four species as T. virnes, T. asperellum, T. lixii, and T. harzianum. Moreover, significant chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase activities of all Trichoderma isolates were recorded in the growth medium. Trichoderma harzianum (isolate PBT13) was found to exhibit the highest chitinase activity in terms of zone formation (4.40 ± 0.17 cm), whereas Trichoderma virens (isolate PBT3) exhibited the highest β-1,3-glucanase activity1.511 μmole/min. A GC-MS analysis of ethyl extracts from two isolates of Trichoderma (PBT9, PBT13) revealed the presence of 28 VOCs. Overall, this study suggests that these four Trichoderma strains are promising biological control agents (BCAs) and could be developed as bio-pesticides after stringent field trials for the management of soil-borne diseases of chickpeas.

Morphological features are not adequate to accurately categorizedifferent species of the genus Trichoderma. Molecular characters, incombination with morphological characters, are used to identify Trichodermaat the species or subspecies level. The present study was focused oncharacterising Trichoderma asperellum based on morphology and molecularanalysis using genes such as ITS. Light microscopy results showed that Trichodermaasperellum regularly branched and typically paired conidiophores withstraight phialides and globose to subglobose shaped conidia Sequence similarityanalysis with reference T. asperellum isolates available in the NCBIdatabase showed 100 percent nucleotide similarity for ITS4 and ITS5. A dualculture test clearly showed that Trichoderma asperllum inhibited thetested fungal plant pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici(87.38 percent). Population dynamics of Trichoderma asperellum incompost were found to be stable until 21 days after mixing.

Background: Chickpea is an important legume crop, which is susceptible to various biotic stresses. Wilt disease severely affect chickpea crop and cause substantial yield reduction. Trichoderma species is a prominent bio-control agent, which is applied against soil borne pathogens. Trichoderma spp. is available in the market in different formulations. The present study investigated the efficacy of a novel Trichoderma viride based seed biopriming method against wilt causing pathogen (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri) in chickpea crop. Methods: The experiment was conducted in-vitro and in-vivo for two years to assess the effect of different doses of T.viride based bioformulation on chickpea seed quality parameters, plant survival against wilt pathogen and chickpea seed yield. Result: Significantly chickpea plants survived (68.71%) against the impact of wilt pathogen when seeds were bioprimed with T. viride bio-formulation @ 5 g/kg seeds. In contrast, only 51.78% chickpea plants survived from untreated seeds. Comparatively high chickpea yield (7.23 q/ha) was produced from bioprimed seeds than untreated seeds (4.65 q/ha). Bio-formation of T. viride (@ 5 g/kg seeds-based seed biopriming is an eco-friendly method to overcome notorious wilt pathogen that lessen the disease incidence and improves the seed quality traits and maximizes the seed yield.