The practical application of life cycle analysis contributes to the creation of more efficient, green technologies, such as the use of renewable energy - photovoltaic panels - in industrial wastewater treatment processes. Life cycle assessment allows for the comparison of CO2 emissions and renewable energy consumption in wastewater treatment flocculants to identify the most environmentally friendly solutions using polymer flocculant - sodium salt of sulfonic acid derived from phenol-formaldehyde resin waste. The results of the research into the environmental impact of a new generation of polymer flocculant synthesized from phenol-formaldehyde resin waste confirmed that this is the right direction for research, as it is ecologically justified. The aim of the study was to assess the life cycle of a flocculant synthesized from phenol-formaldehyde resin waste (novolak T) using energy obtained from photovoltaic panels. The environmental life cycle assessment was performed using SimaPro Developer v9.4 software, applying the Environmental Footprint (EF) 3.0 method and ecoinvent datasets. The functional unit was 100 kg of sodium salt of the sulfonic derivative of novolak T. The characterization results indicate a climate change impact of 170.1 kg of CO2 equivalent and an acidification impact of 5.99 mol H+ equivalent per functional unit. The greatest negative impact on the environment is the production of sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate used to obtain sodium salt of phenol-formaldehyde resin sulfonated derivative. Recycling novolak waste results in negative results in the analyzed impact categories, including resource use and fossil fuels (-5.02 & times; 103 MJ). Recycling has a positive impact, and the overall results indicate that in the supply chain and reagent consumption in the quarter-technical scale production process, it is the main factor reducing the environmental footprint of the polymer-flocculant derived from waste.

This study evaluates the environmental footprint of producing a polymer flocculant synthesised from phenol–formaldehyde resin waste (novolak T) at a quarter-technical scale, with electricity supply assumed from photovoltaic (PV) generation. A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment was performed in SimaPro Developer v9.4 using the Environmental Footprint (EF) 3.0 method and ecoinvent datasets. The functional unit was 100 kg of the sodium salt of the sulfonic derivative of novolak T. The characterization results indicate a climate change impact of 170.1 kg CO2 eq and an acidification impact of 5.99 mol H+ eq per functional unit. Hotspot analysis shows that process chemicals dominate most impact categories: sulphuric acid production drives acidification and several air-emission-related categories, while sodium carbonate is a major contributor to toxicity- and eutrophication-related indicators. In contrast, electricity has a marginal contribution across categories. Recycling of novolak waste provides a strong compensatory credit, leading to net negative results in selected categories, including resource use and fossils (−5.02 × 103 MJ). Overall, the results indicate that improving the upstream supply chains and the consumption of process reagents are the primary levers for reducing the environmental footprint of this waste-derived flocculant.

This paper presents results of a study on changes in the physical and chemical properties of papain-disintegrated sewage sludge subjected to methane fermentation and the effect of enzymes on the colony number of Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and Legionella spp. Fermentation studies were conducted in five batches, in which papain was introduced in amounts representing 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4% (w/w) by weight of the sludge dry matter content. The use of enzymatic disintegration allowed us to intensify the decomposition of organic compounds in the digestion process up to 31% and increase biogas production up to 41% compared to control sludge. At the same time, an almost complete reduction (99–100%) in the colony number of E. coli and Salmonella spp. could be achieved. Therefore, enzymatic disintegration can be competitive with physical or chemical disintegration methods.

Sewage sludge constitutes a type of waste generated during wastewater treatment in any treatment plant. The sludge that meets the quality conditions specified in the legal regulations, due to fertilising properties, can be used for natural purposes (in the recovery process on the surface of the earth or for the reclamation cover of landfills). However, sewage sludge contains various organic microcontaminants, such as, for example, Poly-cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are toxic to aquatic and soil organisms, and the legal regulations do not specify the acceptable concentrations of these compounds. However, the restrictions concerning PAHs in European legislation are proposed. The aim of the study was to use fractional order derivatives to develop a mathematical model describing changes in the concentration of PAHs in sewage sludge stored under natural conditions. The concentrations of selected PAHs were monitored for 3 months at fixed time intervals under the conditions reflecting the use of sludge for natural purposes. A qualitative and quantitative analysis of PAHs was carried out using the GC-MS system. For the mathematical description of changes in the concentration values of individual compounds, fractional order derivatives were used and approximation was carried out using the classical equation of the first order. The developed mathematical model allows for predicting changes in PAH concentrations regarding sludge as well as determining the time necessary to obtain the required concentration of these compounds.

The provisions of the new European Union Directive on urban wastewater treatment introduce the obligation to control selected micropollutants in wastewater discharged to surface receivers. The monitoring list includes 10 active compounds belonging to the following groups of pharmaceuticals: antidepressants (3), antibiotics (1), analgesic (1), diuretic (1), β-blocker (1), anticonvulsant/psychotropic (1) and blood pressure regulator (2). The list of micropollutants also includes benzotriazole and a mixture of two methyl derivatives of benzotriazole (4-methylbenzotriazole and 6-methylbenzotriazole). Currently, the identification of these compounds in water and wastewater is fragmentary and is not the subject of routine monitoring studies. The new Directive presents the required level of removal of these substances, which is 80 %. Previous research described in the literature indicates that the above-mentioned micropollutants are not removed in sewage treatment plants to a sufficient extent, therefore it will be necessary to add another treatment stage. The aim of the work was to screen for the concentration of micropollutants in wastewater from a local municipal wastewater treatment plant and to assess the risk of their removal efficiency in accordance with the requirements of the new Directive on urban waste water treatment.

Secondary water contamination in the distribution subsystem causes interruptions in its supply due to the necessity of undertaking corrective actions such as flushing and disinfecting the water supply network. Preventing events that generate secondary contamination of water, as well as implementing effective flushing and disinfecting procedures, remains a key challenge for water suppliers, as it directly contributes to increasing the security of drinking water provision. A promising solution to this problem is the application of a mobile F&DS (Flushing and Disinfection System), which produces degassed, highly ozonated water and injects it into the pipeline under conditions of microbiological contamination. The research was conducted on a fractional-technical scale using two model systems: a test stand with an operated steel section of the distribution network with sediment deposits, and a test stand with a new PE water pipe free from deposits. In the experiments, the influence of water pH, chloride concentration and water temperature on the effectiveness of ozone-based disinfection was assessed. The results confirmed that ozone enables effective inactivation of the tested microorganisms within a few minutes, thereby allowing water supply to consumers to be safely restored within just a few hours.

The objective of this work was to synthesize new carbon-mineral composites and evaluate their ability to remove sulfamethoxazole from water. Carbon-halloysite (CHS1a,b, CHNT1a,b) and carbon-kaolinite (CKT1a,b) composites were prepared using fruit pomace waste as a carbon precursor. In addition, raw halloysite (HS), halloysite nanotubes (HNT), and kaolinite (KT) were used as templates in the carbonization process conducted under a nitrohen atmosphere at two temperature values: 500oC and 800oC. The morphology and structural characteristics of the obtained composites were investigated using SEM EDX, FT-IR, Raman spectroscopy, and low-temperature nitrogen adsorption methods. All the composites were mesoporous materials. SEM and FTIR results confirmed that the surfaces of HNT, HS, and KT were covered with carbon. The highest carbon content was observed in composites prepared with HNT, suggesting that the nanotube structure enhances carbon deposition. The adsorption of sulfomethoxazole on both the newly synthesized carbon-mineral composites and the unmodified minerals was also studied. The removal efficiency of sulfamethoxazole increased significantly for composites such as CHS1a, CHNT1a, and CKT1a obtained at 800oC, compared to the raw minerals. The optimal conditions for sulfamethoxazole removal, achieving a maximum efficiency of 84%, were found using CHS1a with a dosage of 6 g/dm3 and an initial antibiotic concentration of 20 mg/dm3. The adsorption kinetics of sulfamethoxazole on the most effective adsorbent, CHS1a, was described using the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the multi-center Langmuir adsorption model. CHS1a composite can be considered a promising adsorbent for the removal of sulfamethoxazole from water.

Two industrial waste products – namely, cement bypass dust and apple pomace - were used in the synthesis of a new ecological mineral-carbonaceous material intended that can be used for the adsorption of organic pollutants. The raw materials were mixed at initial ratios of 1:5, 1:9, and 1:18, then subjected to pyrolysis in a nitrogen atmosphere at 800°C. The chemical characterization of the resulting mineral-carbonaceous materials showed that the concentrations of Zn, Cd, and Pb were significantly lower than those in the raw and pyrolyzed bypass dust samples, while the concentrations of Na, Mg, Si, and P were higher. The composition and structure of the mineral-carbonaceous materials depend on the initial dust-to-pomace weight ratio. All materials exhibited a mesoporous nature, with specific surface areas more than one hundred times greater than those of the individual substrates. The highest value exhibits the material with the 1:9 bypass dust-to-apple pomace ratio. This material also had a homogenous, fine-grained structure, with the bypass dust completely covered by carbon.After 24 h, approximately 90% of captan was removed from the aqueous solution and adsorbed onto the mineral-carbonaceous materials. The removal efficiency depended on the initial bypass dust-to-apple pomace ratio, with the best performance (97.3%) observed in the material synthesized at the 1:9 ratio. Our results confirm that otherwise useless wastes can serve as suitable substrates for the synthesis of mineral-carbonaceous materials, which can function as adsorbents for organic pollutants and as potential sources of valuable nutrients.

The municipal wastewater treatment plant in Miedzyzdroje – a Polish seaside resort and tourist destination where a significant increase in the number of tourists during the summer season is regitered – was modernized, to increase the efficiency of wastewater treatment in terms of macro and micropollutants, in the context of new Directive (EU) 2024/3019 adopted in 2024, which amends EU Directive No. 91/271/EEC of May 21, 1991. The modernization consisted, among other things, of supplementing the process technology with an additional continuous gravity filtration process, known as the third stage of treatment. Filtration of wastewater treated by conventional methods (mechanical and biological) is carried out using fabric disk filters of SF6/30 type produced by Mecana AG.The purpose of this study was to analyze the efficiency of removing selected pollutants during the additional gravity filtration process, considering the high annual volumetric variability of wastewater inflowing into the treatment plant. The change in the values of selected wastewater quality indicators and the concentration values of selected micropollutants: per- and polyfluorinated organic compounds PFAS/PFOA, selected pharmaceuticals, and benzotriazoles, were analyzed. The changes in the values of the analyzed indicators confirmed the validity of the applied filtration process as the third stage of wastewater treatment. This creates the possibility of using treated wastewater for municipal purposes that are not subject to quality limits.

The purpose of the research described in the article was to evaluate the environmental impact of flocculants produced from polystyrene waste using the Live Cycle Assessement (LCA) technique. The study was conducted in two stages: stage I was to evaluate the environmental impact of the production of a new flocculant, and stage II was to evaluate the environmental impact of the flocculant used for wastewater treatment. The study was conducted using the software: SimaPro Developer v. 9.4.0.2, characterization was developed using the EF 3.0 v.1.03 method recommended by the European Commission (EC). Previous technological studies have shown that the resulting flocculants can be used to support the coagulation process of industrial wastewater as weights to facilitate sludge agglomeration and sedimentation. In this work, the LCA method was used to analyse the energy consumption required for the flocculant production process and the subsequent process of industrial wastewater treatment using this flocculant. The LCA analysis showed that the environmental burden associated with the use, for the treatment of industrial wastewater, of flocculants synthesized from waste, especially in the raw mineral category, is significantly lower than when using traditional flocculants. The use of photovoltaic electricity (instead of energy produced from coal) results in a 30-fold reduction in the environmental impact of the flocculant production process, which translates into a reduction in the environmental impact of wastewater treatment of about 13 %.

The influence of physicochemical parameters of halloysite-carbon composites on the adsorption of skin disinfectants was investigated. The dispersive surface free energy and acid-base properties of halloysite-carbon composites were determined using inverse gas chromatography. The free adsorption energy was higher for all halloysite-carbon composites compared to the unmodified halloysite, which acted as a less electron-donating adsorbent. In contrast, the composite obtained using halloysite nanotubes (HNT) and ground microcrystalline cellulose as the carbon precursor exhibited the highest free adsorption energy and the Kb/Ka ratio. These results suggest that the free adsorption energy can be an additional factor influencing the adsorption process. We demonstrated that the composite with the highest free adsorption energy is effective for removing triclosan, chloroxylenol and chlorophene from water. The acid-base properties of halloysite-carbon composites enhance the adsorption of these compounds due to their acidic character. The composite with the highest Kb/Ka ratio removes adsorbates from aqueous solutions with the greatest efficiency. Parameters such as free dispersion energy, electron-donating, or electron-accepting properties of the adsorbent help explain why these composites exhibit high adsorption capabilities.

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Recently, an increasing number of research in the field of water and sewage management concerns issues related to the increasing pollution of the aquatic environment with micropollutants from the groups of endocrine-active EDA/EDC compounds and those referred to as "emerging contaminants ECs or CECs (contaminants of emerging concern) - as pollutants" newly appearing in the environment or causing concern". These groups are not mutually exclusive and it is possible to distinguish among them such chemical compounds, which due to their properties are classified into the three mentioned groups. This paper presents an overview of literature data concerning newly identified organic micropollutants in the aquatic environment. The problem of the occurrence of pollutants of anthropogenic origin in waters is valid due to an increase in the number of identified compounds, which so far did not identified or there were no analytical possibilities to detect them. This is important from the point of view of the impact on the biocenosis of the aquatic environment as well as due to the potential contamination of the population's drinking water supply.

Sustainable socioeconomic development should provide humans with a suitable environment for safe living. It can be debated whether the term “environment” should be used due to the significant anthropogenic transformation of the environment. Therefore, an essential part of solving environmental problems is innovation. Climate, resource conservation, and environmental protection are recognized worldwide as common challenges. Thus, it is necessary to implement solutions that simultaneously protect the environment and the climate with sustainable and rational use of resources. Related to this issue is the principle of a loop/closed-loop economy. Among other things, it refers to using waste to prepare materials that can be used for other purposes. The use of tools such as LCA (life cycle analysis) contributes to supporting environmental protection. With the LCA method, it is possible to analyze environmental risks and compare new technological alternatives. LCA is a methodology that has been used around the world with great success, especially for studying individual stages of the entire product life cycle. The results of studies that have been conducted in various research centers confirm the possibility of also using the LCA technique for the environmental assessment of new technologies or existing modernized technological processes. The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of using the LCA method to determine the environmental impact that the potential production and use of new materials will have.

The technological and environmental challenges promoted by the European Commission (EC) follow its objectives to minimise waste, ensure the rational use of resources and energy, use raw materials more efficiently, and increase recovery and recycling. The new hierarchy of handling products and waste has been a key challenge of the circular economy, enhancing the involvement of both businesses and consumers. The life cycle assessment (LCA) is an environmental management technique that makes it possible to assess the environmental impact of a product, a process, an industry, or even an entire sector of the economy. It is used worldwide with great success to study the various stages of technology, ensuring environmental safety. The experience of Polish and foreign research centres confirms the possibility of using the LCA technique to support the environmental risk assessment of technological innovations, therefore the LCA technique has been used to study the environmental impact of potential technologies for producing flocculants from polymer waste. LCA of newly synthesised flocculants has shown that sourcing flocculants from waste phenol–formaldehyde resins is highly beneficial to the environment due to the high toxicity of waste resins that produce phenol when exposed to physical factors.

To ensure an adequate quality and safe water supply, the new Drinking Water Directive 2021/2084-DWD introduced the obligation to carry out a risk assessment throughout the water supply chain to the consumer. In addition, it is mandatory to test water quality from the water supply area to the consumer's tap. Sound management of natural resources to reduce the load of pollutants entering water bodies from urban water treatment plants will be required. New water pollutants have been added to the directive, which should be determined in drinking water. These include per-and polyfluoroalkyl compounds. They are listed in the directive as "Total PFAS" or "Sum of PFAS", and the recommended allowable concentrations in drinking water are 500 and 100 ng/L, respectively. A screening study was carried out to determine the level of contamination of the water source water serving the Jaworzno population by testing both surface water and groundwater. In addition, the concentrations of these compounds were determined in the treated urban wastewater. Several compounds belonging to the perfluoric acid group and several compounds belonging to the sulfonic acid group were quantitatively identified in the water, and treated wastewater was analyzed. The total concentrations determined and the estimated maximum concentrations resulting from the analyti-cal performance of these compounds did not exceed the parametric values indicated in the Drinking Water Directive. Therefore, water abstraction from these sources does not currently pose a con-sumer risk. Given the numerous sources of pollution, mainly industrial, and the need to ensure risk assessment rules in line with the new Drinking Water Directive, it will be essential to monitor the concentrations of these compounds in water and treated wastewater in the future.

In this paper, the N (R) hybrid version of the Kedem-Katchalsky-Peusner (K-K-P) formalism for concentration polarization conditions is developed. For ternary non-electrolyte solutions, this formal-ism includes the hybrid Peusner coefficients (N-ij (R), i, j is an element of {1, 2, 3}, r = A, B), which determine the trans-port properties of the membrane, the N-ij (R) coefficients which determine the degree of coupling, and the energy conversion efficiency coefficient (e(ij)(R)). Besides, K-K-P formalism is the basis for a method to evaluate the conversion of internal energy (U-energy) into free energy (F-energy) and dissipated energy (S-energy) in a membrane system containing ternary non-electrolyte solutions separated by a polymer membrane. Moreover, it is shown that the Peusner coefficients are proposed as a flux-induced version of the modified Peclet number for concentration polarization conditions. The present paper is a continuation of several previous papers, of which the L (R), R (R), H (R), K (R) versions of the Kedem-Katchalsky-Peusner formalism are presented. The formalism using the N (R) form of the hybrid Kedem-Katchalsky-Peusner equations can be a useful tool to study the transport properties of artificial membranes for environmental engineering.

One of the methods of managing biochemically stabilized sewage sludge is their implementation to soil. It is a method regulated by law specifying the requirements that must be met, concerning the level of soil contamination and sewage sludge. It is related to selected heavy metals as well as to sewage sludge and also to the presence of pathogenic organisms. Sewage sludge introduced into the soil performs the role as an organic fertiliser enriching the soil with nutrients. Nevertheless, sewage sludge, apart from valuable components, also contains persistent organic micro pollut-ants. During agricultural use of sewage sludge, they are introduced into the soil and may have a negative impact on the soil microflora development. They can also permeate into plants, which consequently creates the risk of food contamination as food pollutants . This is important because some of them demonstrate carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic effects for living organ-isms, including humans. There are legal regulations in EU countries on the agricultural use of sewage sludge including micro-pollutants: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlo-rinated biphenyls (PCB) components, adsorbable organic halogens, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalates, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/dibenzofurans, linear alkylbenzene sulfonates and nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylate substances. In fact, Poland has not imposed an obligation to control these organic micro pollutants in sewage sludge intended for agricultural use yet. The objective of this study is to assess the potential risk associated with leaching of selected organic micro -pol-lutants from sewage sludge under conditions reflecting the effect of atmospheric precipitation during storage or while naturally using the sewage sludge. Leaching tests were conducted accord-ing to the procedure for drawing up aqueous extracts. Micropollutants such as PAHs and PCBs in aqueous extracts from sewage sludge and soil mixtures with sewage sludge were analysed.

This paper presents the results of a study on the comparative efficiency of phosphorus precipitation using iron(II) sulfate(VI) and pre-hydrolyzed coagulants. Among the hydrolyzed iron coagulants were selected such as: PIX-113, PIX-110 and PIX-111 and among the aluminous ones: PAX XL60, PAX XL10 and PAX XL19H. Tests were conducted for four different doses of iron(II) sulfate(VI) and three different doses for each of the pre-hydrolyzed coagulants iron polychloride (PIX) and alumi-num polychloride (PAX). The raw supernatant were characterized by high phosphate concentrations (227-242 mg center dot PO43-center dot L-1), and the content of organic compounds expressed by the chemical oxygen demand index was in the range of 130-190 mg center dot O2 center dot L-1. The study showed that the precipitation of phosphorus from supernatant is effective with both iron(II) sulfate(VI) and pre-hydrolyzed coagu-lants of the PIX (iron) and PAX (aluminum) groups. The highest efficiency of phosphorus removal (99.5%) and removal of organic compounds (71%) was achieved using the iron coagulant PIX-110. However, taking into account the other liquid quality indicators from the studied wastewater treatment plant, it is economically reasonable to carry out the coagulation process using iron(II) sulfate(VI).

The aim of the paper is to present information from the literature concerning the course of electrochemical wastewater treatment processes in regard to organic micro-pollutant removal. Most often, in order to remove xenobiotics that are difficult to degrade biochemically, advanced oxidation processes and photochemical processes with or without catalysts are used. The efficiency of these processes can be supported by the flow of electric current through the solution being purified in a special system. This paper presents the theoretical foundations of processes such as electrocoagulation, electroflotation, and advanced chemical and photochemical oxidation supported by electric power. Among the processes where the Fenton's reagent is the oxidant, the electro-Fenton and photo-electro-Fenton processes are also described. This information is supplemented with examples of the use of these processes for removal/degradation of selected organic compounds such as pesticides, dyes, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic ingredients, and other organic xenobiotics from wastewater.