Autophagy has emerged as a mechanism critical to both tumorigenesis and development of resistance to multiple lines of anti-cancer therapy. Therefore, targeting autophagy and alternative cell death pathways has arisen as a viable strategy for refractory tumors. The anti-malarial 4-aminoquinoline compounds chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are currently being considered for re-purposing as anti-cancer therapies intended to sensitize different tumors by targeting the lysosomal cell death pathway. Here, we describe a novel organometallic chloroquine derivative, cymanquine, that exhibits enhanced bioactivity compared to chloroquine in both normal, and reduced pH tumor microenvironments, thus overcoming a defined limitation of traditional 4-aminoquinolines. In vitro, cymanquine exhibits greater potency than CQ in a diverse panel of human cancer cell lines, including melanoma, in both normal pH and in reduced pH conditions that mimic the tumor microenvironment. Cymanquine treatment results in greater lysosomal accumulation than chloroquine and induces lysosomal dysfunction leading to autophagy blockade. Using a mouse model of vemurafenib-resistant melanoma, cymanquine slowed tumor growth greater than hydroxychloroquine, and when used in combination with vemurafenib, cymanquine partially restored sensitivity to vemurafenib. Overall, we show that cymanquine exhibits superior lysosomal accumulation and autophagy blockade than either chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine in vitro; and in addition to its high level of tolerability in mice, exhibits superior in vivo efficacy in a model of human melanoma.

The authors regret that the oxidation potentials given for compound 5 in the paper are incorrect. The correct values, referenced to ferrocene, are 0.88 V for the first oxidation and 1.14 V for the second oxidation.

The electrochemical oxidation of ferrocenes having an H- or Li-terminated ethynyl group has been studied, especially as it relates to their covalent anchoring to carbon surfaces. The anodic oxidation of lithioethynylferrocene (1-Li) results in rapid loss of Li+ and formation of the ethynyl-based radical FeCp(η5-C5H4)(C≡C), (1, Cp = η5-C5H5), which reacts with the electrode. Chemically modified electrodes (CMEs) were thereby produced containing strongly bonded, ethynyl-linked monolayers and electrochemically controlled multilayers. Strong attachments of ethynylferrocenes to gold and platinum surfaces were also possible. The lithiation/anodic oxidation process is a mirror analogue of the diazonium/cathodic reduction process for preparation of aryl-modified CMEs. A second method produced an ethynylferrocene-modified electrode by direct anodic oxidation of the H-terminated ethynylferrocene (1-H) at a considerably more positive potential. Both processes produced robust modified electrodes with well-defined ferrocene-based surface cyclic voltammetry waves that remained unchanged for as many as 104 scans. Ferrocene derivatives in which the ethynyl moiety was separated from the cyclopentadienyl ring by an ether group showed very similar behavior. DFT calculations were performed on the relevant redox states of 1-H, 1-Li, and 1, with emphasis on the ferrocenyl vs ethynyl character of their high valence orbitals. Whereas the HOMOs of both 1-H and 1-Li have some ethynyl character, the SOMOs of the corresponding monocations are strictly ferrocenium in makeup. Predominant ethynyl character returns to the highest valence orbitals after loss of Li+ from [1-Li]+ or loss of H+ from [1-H]2+. These anodic processes hold promise for the controlled chemical modification of carbon and other electrode surfaces by a variety of ethynyl or alkynyl-linked organic and metal-containing systems.

Two new Zn(II) complexes have been prepared and evaluated for their capacity to activate and reduce CO2. The electrochemical properties of dichlorobis[diphenyl-(2-pyridyl)phosphine-κ(1)-N]zinc(II) [corrected]. and dichloro[diphenyl-(2-pyridyl)phosphine-κ(1)-N]zinc(II) 2 are compared using cyclic voltammetry. Electrochemical results indicate that 2 leads to a facilitated CO2 reduction to evolve CO at a glassy carbon electrode.

Reaction of [κ2-PR2C(SiMe3)Py]2Zn (R = Ph, 2a; iPr, 2b) with CO2 affords the products of formal insertion at the C–Si bond, [κ2-PR2CC(O)O(SiMe3)Py]2Zn (R = Ph, 3a; iPr, 3b). Insertion product 3b was structurally characterized. The reaction appears to be a stepwise insertion and rearrangement of CO2 based on kinetic data.

The strained, sila[1]ferrocenophane [{Fe(eta-C5H4)(2)}SiMe(eta-C5H4)Ru(eta-C5H5)] (4) has been prepared by the reaction of Li[eta-C5H4)Ru(eta-C5H5)] (8) With [E{Fe(eta-C5H4)(2)}SiMeCl] (7). Two different routes for the synthesis of 8 were investigated, which differed predominately in the purity of the product obtained. Although the thermal ring-opening polymerisation (ROP) Of 4 failed to yield soluble polymeric material, photocontrolled ROP using Na[C5H5] as the initiator afforded relatively monodisperse, soluble polymers of predetermined molecular weights and the general formula [(eta-C5H4)Fe(eta-C5H4)SiMe{(eta-C5H4)Ru(eta-C5H5)}](n) (19). This material was stable to both oxygen and moisture. Electrochemical characterisation of 4 revealed unusual, concentration dependent behaviour as a consequence of the oxidation of the ruthenocenyl groups. This phenomenon was not observed upon oxidation of the Ru centres in 19, presumably due to the sterically encumbered structure of the polymer. The photocontrolled ROP protocol was extended to afford the block copolymers polystyrene (PS)(n)-b-[(eta-C5H4)Fe(eta-C5H4)SiMe{(eta-C5H4)Ru(eta-C5H5)}](m) (22) by the application of a PS-based macroinitiator. These materials represent rare examples of complex polymer architectures where two different metals are incorporated in the same block.

An electron-transfer series of octahedral α-diimine complexes [((H)L(Cy))3Cr](n+)(BARF)n (n = 2, 1, 0) has been synthesized and crystallographically characterized. Cyclic voltammetry indicated additional formation of [((H)L(Cy))3Cr](3+). The molecular structures suggested that all redox processes were ligand-based. Magnetic moments were consistent with spin ground states of S = 0 for [(H)L(Cy)3Cr](0), S = 1/2 for [(H)L(Cy)3Cr](+1), and S = 1 for [(H)L(Cy)3Cr](+2). The experimental data is consistent with chromium maintaining the +III oxidation state throughout, while being coordinated by varying numbers of neutral diimines ((H)L(Cy)) and diimine radical anions ((H)L(Cy)˙(-)).

The divalent metal complexes M(II){(SC6H4-2-PR2)-κ(2)S,P}2 (3-7, and 9-11) (M = Zn, Sn, or Pb; R = (i)Pr, (t)Bu, or Ph), the Sn(IV) complexes Sn{(SC6H4-2-PR2)-κ(2)-S,P}Ph2Cl (12 and 13) (R = (i)Pr and (t)Bu), and the ionic Sn(IV) complexes [Sn{(SC6H4-2-PR2)-κ(2)-S,P}Ph2][BPh4] (14 and 15) (R = (i)Pr and (t)Bu) have been prepared and characterized by multinuclear NMR spectroscopy and single crystal X-ray diffraction when suitable crystals were afforded. The Sn(II) and Pb(II) complexes with R = Ph, (i)Pr, or (t)Bu (5, 6, 9, and 10) demonstrated ligand "folding" hinging on the P,S vector-a behavior driven by the repulsions of the metal/phosphorus and metal/sulfur lone pairs and increased M-S sigma bonding strength. This phenomenon was examined by density functional theory (DFT) calculations for the compounds in both folded and unfolded states. The Sn(IV) compound 13 (R = (t)Bu) crystallized with the phosphine in an axial position of the pseudotrigonal bipyramidal complex and also exhibited hemilability in the Sn-P dative bond, while compound 12 (R = (i)Pr), interestingly, crystallized with phosphine in an equatorial position and did not show hemilability. Finally, the crystal structure of 15 (R = (t)Bu) revealed the presence of an uncommon, 4-coordinate, stable Sn(IV) cation.

Electrochemistry is a powerful tool for the study of oxidative electron-transfer reactions (anodic processes). Since the 1960s, the electrolytes of choice for nonaqueous electrochemistry were relatively small (heptaatomic or smaller) inorganic anions, such as perchlorate, tetrafluoroborate, or hexafluorophosphate. Owing to the similar size-to-charge ratios of these "traditional" anions, structural alterations of the electrolyte anion are not particularly valuable in effecting changes in the corresponding redox reactions. Systematic variations of supporting electrolytes were largely restricted to cathodic processes, in which interactions of anions produced in the reactions are altered by changes in electrolyte cations. A typical ladder involves going from a weakly ion-pairing tetraalkylammonium cation, [N(C(n)H(2n+1))(4)](+), with n > or = 4, to more strongly ion-pairing counterparts with n < 4, and culminating in very strongly ion-pairing alkali metal ions. A new generation of supporting electrolyte salts that incorporate a weakly coordinating anion (WCA) expands anodic applications by providing a dramatically different medium in which to generate positively charged electrolysis products. A chain of electrolyte anions is now available for the control of anodic reactions, beginning with weakly ion-pairing WCAs, progressing through the traditional anions, and culminating in halide ions. Although the electrochemical properties of a number of different WCAs have been reported, the most systematic work involves fluoro- or trifluoromethyl-substituted tetraphenylborate anions (fluoroarylborate anions). In this Account, we focus on tetrakis(perfluorophenyl)borate, [B(C(6)F(5))(4)](-), which has a significantly more positive anodic window than tetrakis[(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)]borate, [BArF(24)](-), making it suitable in a larger range of anodic oxidations. These WCAs also have a characteristic of specific importance to organometallic redox processes. Many electron-deficient organometallic compounds are subject to nucleophilic attack by the traditional family of electrolyte anions. With a view to testing the scope of the much less nucleophililic WCAs in providing a benign electrolyte anion for the generation of organometallic cation radicals, we carried out a series of studies on transition metal sandwich and half-sandwich compounds. The model compounds were chosen both for their fundamental importance and because their radical cations had been neither isolated nor spectrally characterized, despite many previous electrochemical investigations with traditional anions. The oxidation of prototypical organometallic compounds, such as the sandwich-structured ruthenocene and the piano-stool structured Cr(eta(6)-C(6)H(6))(CO)(3), Mn(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(3), Re(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(3), and Co(eta(5)-C(5)H(5))(CO)(2), gave the first definitive in situ characterization of their radical cations. In several cases, the kinetic stabilization of the anodic products allowed the identification of dimers or unique dimer radicals having weak metal-metal bonds and provided new preparative options for organometallic systems. In terms of thermodynamic effects, the lower ion-pairing abilities of WCAs and their good solubility in a broad range of solvents, including those of lower polarity, permitted a systematic study that yielded an integrated model of how to use solvent-electrolyte combinations to manipulate the E(1/2) differences of compounds undergoing multiple electron-transfer reactions. Although the efficacy of WCA-based electrolytes in organometallic anodic chemistry is now established, WCAs might further expand applications of organic redox chemistry. Other WCAs, including those derived from carboranes and fluorinated alkoxyaluminates, merit additional studies.

The one-electron reduction of (Au(mnt)(2)](2-) (mnt = [S(2)C(2)(CN)(2)](2-), maleonitriledithiolate), 1(2-), stands out in the rich redox chemistry of metal-mnt complexes as a chemically reversible but electrochemically irreversible process. Although the E(1/2) value of the primary redox reaction 1(2-)/1(3-) is only slightly medium dependent (ca. -1.36 V to -1.53 V vs FcH in several nonaqueous solvents and supporting electrolytes), its chemical reversibility is dramatically solvent dependent. A quasi-Nernstian process was observed only in tetrahydrofuran (THF) at low supporting electrolyte concentrations. Fast reversible follow-up reactions, ascribed to formation of solvento-complexes [Au(mnt)(2)center dot Solv](3-), were observed through cyclic voltammetry (CV) studies in dichloromethane and acetonitrile. The specifically solvated trianion reverts to "unsolvated" 1(2-) when reoxidized, accounting for the overall chemical reversibility of the process. Owing to the fact that the ligands in 1(3-) are highly negatively charged, the strong specific solvation is likely to involve H-bonding interactions between the solvent and the sulfur atoms of the trianion. Ion-pairing interactions between 1(3-) and electrolyte cations were also shown to have a discernible effect on the 1(2-)/1(3-) couple in THF. The heterogeneous electron-transfer (ET) rate constant (k(s)) for this couple was sufficiently low (k(s) = similar to 10(-3) cm s(-1)) to suggest a square-planar to quasi-tetrahedral structural rearrangement being intrinsic to the 1(2-)/1(3-) ET process. The E(1/2) separation between the 1(-)/1(2-) and 1(2-)/1(3-) couples (ca. 220 mV) is much smaller than any of those previously reported for metal-mnt complexes. The behavior of the gold-mnt trianion is a rare example of a ligand-based solvento-complex, which contrasts with the well-known metal-based solvento-complexes that are commonly observed between electron-deficient complexes and strong donor solvents.

The new conjugated organometallic polymer (-spacer-C[triple bond]C-Pt(PBu3)2-C[triple bond]C-)n (3; spacer = para-bis(diphenyl(tetramethyl)quinone diimine) and the cyclic mononuclear model complex, spacer'-C[triple bond]C-Pt(PEt3)2-C[triple bond]C x CuCl (4; spacer' = ortho-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-1,4-benzoquinone diimine) were synthesized from the 1:1 condensation of the corresponding diethynyl ligands (2-para and 2-ortho (para- and ortho-diethynyl-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetramethylquinone diimine), respectively), with the trans-Pt(PBu3)2Cl2 for polymer 3 and cis-Pt(PEt3)2Cl2 for 4. The materials were characterized by GPC, DSC, ATG, and electrochemistry for polymer 3, and by X-ray diffraction for 4. Polymer 3 exhibits a M(n) of 18500, M(w) of 25000 with a PD of 1.37. The trans-geometry about Pt in polymer 3 was confirmed by 31P NMR and IR/Raman spectroscopy. The cyclic voltammogram study on the model complex trans-Pt(PBu3)2(C[triple bond]CPh)2, spacer 1-para (Me3Si-C[triple bond]C-R-C[triple bond]C-SiMe3; R = para-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-1,4-benzoquinone diimine) and polymer 3 demonstrated that polymer 3 in the presence of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) exhibits a quasi reversible 2-electron reduction process centered at 0.48 V versus SCE corresponding to the reduction of the protonated quinone diimine unit into the corresponding diamine. The UV-vis spectra of the spacer 2-para (440 nm) and polymer 3 (502 nm) are characterized by red-shifted charge transfer (CT) absorptions (C6H4C[triple bond]C --> quinone diimine for 2-para; and (C6H4C[triple bond]C)2Pt --> quinone diimine for polymer 3). These assignments are corroborated by density-functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density-functional theory (TDDFT) computations. Polymer 3 is not luminescent in the solid state or in solution at 77 K and 298 K.

The electrochemical oxidation of ruthenocene, RuCp(2) (Cp = eta(5)-C(5)H(5)), 1, has been studied in dichloromethane using a supporting electrolyte containing either the [B(C(6)F(5))(4)](-) (TFAB) or the [B(C(6)H(3)(CF(3))(2))(4)](-) (BArF(24)) counteranion. A quasi-Nernstian process was observed in both cases, with E(1/2) values of 0.41 and 0.57 V vs FeCp(2) in the respective electrolyte media. The ruthenocenium ion 1(+) equilibrates with a metal-metal bonded dimer [Ru(2)Cp(4)](2+), 2(2+), that is increasingly preferred at low temperatures. Dimerization equilibrium constants determined by digital simulation of cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves were in the range of 10(2)-10(4) M(-1) at temperatures of 256 to 298 K. Near room temperature, and particularly when BArF(24) is the counteranion, the dinuclear species [Ru(2)Cp(2)(sigma:eta(5)-C(5)H(4))(2)] (2+), 3(2+), in which each metal is sigma-bonded to a cyclopentadienyl ring, was the preferred electrolytic oxidation product. Cathodic reduction of 3(2+) regenerated ruthenocene. The two dinuclear products, 2(2+) and 3(2+), were characterized by (1)H NMR spectroscopy on anodically electrolyzed solutions of 1 at low temperatures in CD(2)Cl(2)/[NBu(4)][BArF(24)]. The variable temperature NMR behavior of these solutions showed that 3(2+) and 2(2+) take part in a thermal equilibrium, the latter being dominant at the lowest temperatures. Ruthenocene hydride, [1-H](+), was also identified as being present in the electrolysis solutions. The oxidation of ruthenocene is shown to be an inherent one-electron process, giving a ruthenocenium ion which is highly susceptible to reactions that allow it to regain an 18-electron configuration. In a dry non-donor solvent, and in the absence of nucleophiles, this electronic configuration is attained by self-reactions involving formation of Ru-Ru or Ru-C bonds. The present data offer a mechanistic explanation for the previously described results on the chemical oxidation of osmocene (Droege, M.W.; Harman, W.D.; Taube, H. Inorg. Chem. 1987, 26, 1309) and are relevant to the manner in which sigma:eta(5)-C(5)H(4)-complexes of other second and third-row metals are formed.

The anodic oxidation of Co(2)Fv(CO)(4), 1, has been studied in dichloromethane containing [NBu4][TFAB] (TFAB = [B(C6F5)(4)](-)) as the supporting electrolyte anion. Voltammetric, amperometric, coulometric, and in situ spectroelectrochemical methods showed that 1 is oxidized in two one-electron steps to 1(+) (E-1/2 = 0.06 V) and 1(2+) (E-1/2 = 0.51 V) in fast, diffusion-controlled processes without evidence of product adsorption at glassy carbon electrodes. Whereas the neutral compound has a transoid configuration of the two metals, IR and ESR spectra of the monocation 1(+) are best interpreted as arising from a cisoid structure with a Co-Co bond. Analysis of the ESR data suggests that the SOMO of 1+ is significantly delocalized over the metal and ligand moieties. The discrete one-electron reactions of the 1/1(+)/12(+) electron-transfer series stand in contrast to the direct two-electron processes observed for analogous group 6 and group 8 dileptic fulvalenediyl complexes. The radical cation 1+ undergoes rapid substitution of a CO group when it is electrochemically generated in the presence of added PPh3. Cyclic voltammetry simulations establish a substitution rate constant of 5 x 10(3) M-1 s(-1) for the reaction. Bulk oxidation of 1 in the presence of 1 equiv of PPh3 yields only the monosubstituted dication [Co(2)Fv(CO)(3)(PPh3)](2+), 2(2+), as shown by IR spectroscopy. One-electron back-reduction of 2(2+) to 2(+) allowed spectral identification of the radical cation of the substitution product. Study of the anodic products of Co(2)Fv(CO)(4) was made possible by substitution of a traditional supporting electrolyte anion ([PF6](-) or [BF4](-)) by the weakly coordinating TFAB anion.