Plasmodesmata are nanoscopic channels that traverse plant cell walls, enabling direct intercellular exchange through membrane and cytosolic continuity. Although numerous plasmodesmal components have been identified, their molecular organization remains poorly defined. Here we used cryo-electron tomography to resolve the in situ architecture of plasmodesmata in Physcomitrium patens across tissues and physiological states. We show how callose-related cell wall remodelling shapes pore architecture to modulate permeability, including a previously undescribed fully sealed state, and resolve helical protein assemblies scaffolding the central, endoplasmic-reticulum-derived desmotubule. Candidate screening via proteomics and structure prediction indicates Multiple C2 Domain and Transmembrane Proteins (MCTPs) as key constituents of these assemblies. In this model, MCTPs tether the desmotubule to the plasma membrane, while their disordered linker regions with polyampholyte charge patterning may populate the cytosolic sleeve. These findings define core architectural features of plasmodesmata and provide a structural framework for understanding how membrane, protein and cell wall components coordinate intercellular connectivity in plants.

TALENs and CRISPR/Cas have become routine tools for genome editing. During stable plant transformation, genes coding for editing enzymes, e.g., Cas9, guide RNAs (gRNA), and selectable or screenable markers are integrated into the nuclear genome. Identification of successful transformants relies on selectable or screenable markers, typically genes providing resistance to herbicides or antibiotics. Selectable markers use a substantial portion of the T-DNA, hence reducing transfer efficiency by limiting the effective number of TALENs or guide/pegRNAs that can be used. Marker genes are frequently subject to gene silencing. Here, we generated loss-of-function mutations in PUT/LAT-type polyamine transporter family genes to confer resistance to methylviologen (MV) in rice. As proof of concept, CRISPR/Cas9 constructs with gRNAs were generated to target three close homologs, namely OsLAT1, OsLAT5, and OsLAT7. Loss of OsLAT5 (also known as OsPUT3 or OsPAR1) function was sufficient to confer resistance to MV in rice seeds, seedlings and calli. Loss-of-function alleles generated by editing of LAT5 can serve as a selectable marker at the seed germination stage. We discuss the potential utility of rice lat5 loss of function variants as selectable markers for genome editing.

Recent advances in generative artificial intelligence (AI) have enabled the de novo design of genome-editing nucleases. For example, OpenCRISPR-1 offers an open-source alternative to naturally evolved CRISPR systems and expands the "freedom to operate" (FTO). Here, we report the development and systematic validation of a monocot-optimized OpenCRISPR-1-based genome-editing ecosystem in rice (Oryza sativa). By targeting the OsSWEET susceptibility (S) gene family, we demonstrate that OpenCRISPR-1 supports robust multiplexed editing in both rice calli and stable T0 plants, with mutation frequencies reaching 100% in some samples. Deep sequencing revealed that the OpenCRISPR-1 mutational landscape mirrors that of Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9), facilitating the development of predictable loss-of-function alleles that confer broad-spectrum resistance to bacterial blight. To develop a fully open-source platform, we integrated an AI-designed Open sgRNA scaffold (OpsgRNA), which maintained high editing efficacy across multiple target loci, into our editing system. Furthermore, we expanded the toolkit by engineering OpenPE6c, an OpenCRISPR-1-based prime editing system. OpenPE6c exhibited precise editing rates in rice protoplasts comparable to that of canonical SpCas9-PE6c while significantly reducing imprecise byproducts, suggesting that the AI-designed nuclease has enhanced fidelity. Our results establish OpenCRISPR-1 as a versatile, high-performance, public-access platform for advanced plant genome engineering, offering a transparent framework for the global democratization of precision crop breeding.

Eukaryotes developed a separate compartment for transcription, the nucleus (karyon), which is protected by a double membrane with micropores that enable the exchange of solutes between cytoplasm and nucleoplasm, in particular the exchange of RNAs and proteins. The composition and structure of the nuclear pore core scaffold have been resolved at the atomic level. The core of the transport mechanism is generated by intrinsically disordered phenylalanine-glycine (FG)-repeat proteins, the FG-nucleoporins. The in vivo state of the FG barrier in native nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) remains a topic of debate, with polymer brushes, liquid state, or bimolecular condensates (also termed hydrogels) discussed as barriers in the pore. Purified FG domains can reproduce many of the features of nuclear transport, such as the dependence of cargo transport on size and certain surface features. This review provides an overview of the composition, structure, and transport mechanism of NPCs and the role of phase separation. Due to analogous functions in protein and RNA transport and similarities of transport properties through NPCs and plasmodesmata, the summary provided here for the NPCs may be instructive for studies on the structure and function of plasmodesmata.

Abstract Plasmodesmata (PD) mediate intercellular exchange of small molecules, RNAs and proteins between plant cells with an apparent exclusion limit for passive non-specific transport, and transport of specific cargo mediated by mediators. PD and nuclear pore complexes (NPC) are nanometer sized micropores with strikingly similar properties. Cargo translocation through NPC is mediated by phase separating FG-nucleoporins (FG-NUP). Here, bioinformatics, proteomics and fluorescence imaging identified FG-NUPs at PD. Transient expression of GFP fusions at low and intermediate expression levels supported dual localization of 12 NUPs to NPC and PD. Structured illumination microscopy detected the transmembrane anchor NUP CPR5 close to orifices of PD. cpr5 mutants showed reduced intercellular short-root (SHR) transport. However, transport defects cannot be excluded due to indirect effects in the mutants. Identification of FG-NUPs at PD is consistent with the recruitment of NUPs to form a PD pore gating complex consistent with phase separation domains as diffusion barriers at PD. Further analyses will be required to determine whether NUPs are bona fide PD components, or accumulate at PD in certain conditions, or may serve intermediate NPC storage.

Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), the causal agent of bacterial blight in rice, has primarily been studied in the context of foliar infections. However, infected stubble and irrigation water may serve as reservoirs and be responsible for root infections at the seedling stage in the field, especially during transplanting. Here, we established a coleoptile crown root infection protocol to investigate whether TAL effectors can induce SWEET sucrose uniporter susceptibility genes in the root and whether the disease can propagate from roots to seedling shoots. Using translational SWEET11a-GUS reporter rice lines under control of the native SWEET11a promoter, we observed progressive infection in the root xylem after clip infection of roots, as indicated by accumulation of the SWEET11a-GUS fusion protein in infected coleoptile crown roots. However, we did not detect progression of GUS accumulation beyond the coleoptile node, nor did we detect bacterial blight symptoms on the young leaves. Notably, the xylem, at least during the early stages of infection, remained functional, as shown by Rhodamine B tracers, consistent with transfer of xylem constituents via living cells at the coleoptile nodes that did not allow bacteria to pass. The root clip infection protocol is approximately 4× faster compared with standard leaf-clipping assays (root assay: 11 days from sowing; clip infection: 39 days), enabling rapid assessment of the TAL effector activity and plant defense responses with translational SWEET-GUS reporter rice lines. Our findings expand our understanding of Xoo infection routes and provide a valuable tool for resistance testing and pathogen surveillance. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2026 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Increasing yield is of major importance for Asian and African food security. Knock out mutants in the rice cytokinin oxidase gene CKX2 had shown potential for yield improvement. Here we explored whether subtle changes in CKX2 activity by editing FAD and cytokinin binding site sequences could improve the Indian mega-variety Samba Mahsuri. Knock out and single mutants in FAD and cytokinin binding sites induced by CRISPR/Cas12a caused moderate yield increases. Among 80 CKX2 alleles, five lines with in-frame mutations in both FAD and cytokinin binding domains produced even higher yield. One line, KAMALA, showed superior agronomic performance in 18 field locations (irrigated and rainfed ecologies) over three seasons in trials conducted by AICRPR (All India Coordinated Research Project on Rice), with an average 19% grain yield increase, early maturity, complete panicle emergence, and unaltered grain quality. KAMALA was registered as the first genome-edited variety ready for cultivation by Indian farmers. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. ICAR-NASF, NASF/CRISPR-Cas-7003/2017-18, NASF/ BGAM-9021/2022-23

Summary Cell polarity is an ancient organizing principle across kingdoms. As in animal epithelial cells, plant cells asymmetrically distribute proteins to establish functionally distinct membrane domains. In roots, radial polarity distinguishes inner and outer cell surfaces and supports directional nutrient transport, yet its molecular basis remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinases CaMRLK and IRK occupy complementary lateral plasma membrane domains in Arabidopsis thaliana roots. Polarity-guided proximity labeling identified previously uncharacterized proteins associated with inner-and outer-lateral domains. Clade VII LRR-RLKs, protein S -acyltransferases, SICK, IRKI1, and a distinct group of NPH3/RPT2-LIKEs assemble into the Lateral Protein Cluster (LPC) through multivalent interactions. LPC components are conserved across land plants, and disruption of NRL function impairs morphogenesis in Arabidopsis and Marchantia polymorpha . Together, these findings establish the LPC as an evolutionarily conserved molecular machinery linking radial cell polarity to plant morphogenesis.

The virulence of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, the causal agent of bacterial blight (BB) of rice, critically depends on the activation of SWEET sucrose uniporters of the host. To date, the role of SWEET-released sucrose for virulence remains unclear. We here identified the sux locus of Xoo consisting of a LacI-type repressor (SuxR), an outer membrane TonB-like porin (SuxA), an inner membrane MFS H+-symporter (SuxC), and a cytosolic sucrose hydrolase (SuxB). Structural and functional analyses demonstrate that SuxB has exclusive sucrose hydrolase activity. Mutant analyses show that the transporter SuxC and the sucrose hydrolase are necessary for growth of bacteria on sucrose, while SuxA is not essential, likely due to the ability of other porins to transport sucrose across the outer membrane. Consistent with a role of SuxR as a sucrose repressor, transcriptome studies show sucrose-dependent regulation of the suxA/suxB genes. Besides a role of sucrose for reproduction, we found that sucrose promotes motility, extracellular polysaccharides production, biofilm formation, and virulence. Notably, the SuxC sucrose H+-symporter and the sucrose hydrolase SuxB were required for full virulence of Xoo on indica and japonica rice varieties. Our findings indicate that pathogen-induced sucrose efflux via SWEETs provides sucrose to Xoo, that Xoo uses the sux gene cluster to acquire and utilize sucrose, and that sucrose promotes bacterial fitness and xylem colonization.

Abstract Gibberellins (GAs) influence cell division and elongation, profoundly shaping plant architecture and yield. GA perception occurs when bioactive GAs bind the receptor GID1, promoting DELLA degradation and activating transcriptional programs. While GA signaling in the root endodermis is essential for promoting root elongation, functions of other layers in spatial control of GA responses have not been explored. Here, we developed a synthetic GA (sGA) that does not bind endogenous GID1, together with a modified GID1 (mGID1) engineered to selectively recognize sGA, enabling cell-specific activation of GA signaling in vivo. Using this system in Arabidopsis , we demonstrate that coordinated action of GA signaling in the endodermis, epidermis, and other layers is required for full root elongation. Moreover, cell type-specific expression of GA biosynthetic enzymes indicates the existence of intercellular GA transport. The sGA–mGID1 system provides a versatile platform for spatially precise reprogramming of hormone signaling, enabling synthetic control of developmental processes such as root-shoot growth balance, thereby advancing applications in plant synthetic biology and sustainable crop improvement.

Plant pathogens rely on host-derived nutrients for proliferation, yet the mechanisms by which hosts supply these nutrients remain incompletely understood. Here, we show that infection of Arabidopsis thaliana by the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea leads to increased accumulation of the amino acid transporter UmamiT20 in leaf veins surrounding the lesions. Functional assays demonstrate that UmamiT20 mediates amino acid transport of a wide range of neutral amino acids. Consistent with a role during infection, umamiT20 knockout mutants displayed significantly reduced susceptibility to B. cinerea. Our findings extend the concept of transporter-mediated susceptibility beyond the SWEET sugar transporters in bacterial blight of rice, cassava, and cotton, to a necrotrophic fungus and implicate nutrients other than sucrose, namely amino acids, in nutrition or nutrient signaling related to immunity. We hypothesize that stacking of mutations in different types of susceptibility-related nutrient carriers to interfere with access to several nutrients may enable engineering of robust pathogen resistance in a wide range of plant-pathogen systems.

Abstract Bacterial leaf blight (BB), caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), causes yield losses exceeding 50% in affected areas, including the Bagré rice plain in Burkina Faso. Genome-edited (GE’d) rice lines have been successful in tackling BB. Modifications in the Xoo virulence protein target site upstream of three SWEET susceptibility genes in two elite rice varieties, IR64 and Ciherang-Sub1, have been demonstrated to confer broad-spectrum resistance to Asian and East African Xoo strains. Here, we evaluate the potential of the GE’d lines as a solution for BB management in Burkina Faso. We challenged the GE’d lines against five locally collected Burkinabè Xoo strains under controlled green-house conditions and assessed their agro-morphological performance under field conditions representative of local agroecological conditions. Greenhouse pathogen assays demonstrated that GE’d IR64 and Ciherang-Sub1 lines were resistant to all tested local Xoo strains across three successive generations. We identified TalC as the primary disease-causing effector in the local Xoo populations. Irrigated field trials conducted over two seasons in the Kou Valley, Burkina Faso, revealed absence of agro-morphological penalties in GE’d lines compared to their parental wild-type lines. Observed trait variation was attributable to environmental fluctuations rather than genomic modifications. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that genome editing of the rice lines does not impose growth penalties, and support the suitability of GE’d IR64 and Ciherang-Sub1 for large-scale adoption in Burkina Faso, pending multi-location validation and introgression into locally adapted varieties.

Intercellular viral movement in plants is mediated by movement proteins (MPs) that modulate plasmodesmata (PD) enabling cell-to-cell and systemic trafficking. Although phosphorylation has long been implicated in the regulation of MP localization and activity, the identity of host kinases and the interface with immune signaling have remain unresolved. Here, we identified the Arabidopsis thaliana lectin receptor-like kinase RDA2 as a PD-associated regulatory component of viral movement. Using proximity labeling, we detected RDA2 as a proximal interactor of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) MP, and show that RDA2 directly phosphorylates MP at multiple sites in vitro . Phosphorylation at threonine 75 is required for efficient PD targeting and intercellular movement, while phospho-dead mutants failed to complement viral spread. Loss of RDA2 enhanced MP mobility and increased TMV accumulation in planta , indicating that RDA2 modulates PD transport during the infection. RDA2 also interacted with and phosphorylated the movement protein of cucumber mosaic virus, implicating that this regulatory mechanism extends across members of the 30K MP superfamily. Our findings demonstrate that a plasma membrane receptor-like kinase can directly modify viral movement proteins, establishing a mechanistic link between receptor-mediated immune signaling and the post-translational control of symplasmic connectivity. One-sentence summary RDA2, a lectin receptor-like kinase, directly phosphorylates conserved 30K viral movement proteins to control their plasmodesmal targeting and restrict cell-to-cell viral spread in plants ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, PID2023-149845OA-I00 Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, https://ror.org/012kf4317, AvH Professorship to WBF Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, 391465903/GRK 2466 European Research Council, https://ror.org/0472cxd90, ‘SymPore’ No. 951292

To enable sensitive in vivo monitoring of the glucose transport and metabolism, we developed a series of ultrasensitive and ratiometric genetically encoded sensors (MGlucoMeter) by inserting a Matryoshka dual fluorophore cassette consisting of cpsfGFP (circularly permuted superfolder GFP) and LSSmApple (Large Stokes Shift mApple) into the glucose-binding protein ttGBP (Thermus thermophilus glucose-binding protein) from Thermus thermophilus. The initial MGlucoMeter1.0 version was subjected to an alanine scan of the hinge region producing the more sensitive MGlucoMeter2.6 with a glucose-induced ΔF/F0 change of 3.0, an affinity for glucose of 15 μm, and an approximate detection range of 1-215 μm. To generate variants suitable for in vivo measurements, a series of affinity mutants was generated by mutating two histidines predicted to be involved in substrate binding. MGlucoMeter2.6-353n (affinity 353 nm), MGlucoMeter2.6-15 μ (affinity 15 μm), MGlucoMeter2.6-700 μ (affinity 700 μm), MGlucoMeter2.6-1 m (affinity 1 mm), and MGlucoMeter2.6-7 m (affinity 7 mm) cover a combined detection range between ∼40 nm-55 mm. When expressed from a ubiquitous promoter in the cytosol of the Arabidopsis gene-silencing mutant rdr6 (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6), MGlucoMeter2.6-1 m reports time- and concentration-dependent accumulation of glucose in seedling roots after external addition of glucose. The sensor also detected rapid release of sugars in the root tip and rapid hydrolysis of the shoot-derived sucrose.

Summary • Seeds are complex reproductive organs consisting of diverse maternal and filial tissues. During development, the embryo and specialized tissues for nutrient storage required for seed germination and early seedling establishment emerge. • To explore the cellular diversity and differentiation of seeds, we performed single cell RNA-sequencing on heart stage Arabidopsis seeds and identified 20,097 cells that were grouped into ≥21 distinct cell clusters. 20 of the 21 clusters were spatially assigned by combining bioinformatic analysis, imaging reporter fusion marker lines, and spatial transcriptomics. • Our analysis revealed a high degree of differentiation of epidermal cell and inner cell layers along the rotational and axial seed axes, highlighting the importance of cell position and ontogenesis. We identified unexpected spatial domains, including a cluster marked by abscission zone-specific transcripts, and a nucellar cluster shaped by developmentally programmed cell death. Surprisingly, embryo and endosperm showed similarities in transcript profiles despite distinct and complementary functions. • In summary, our findings establish seeds as a transcriptionally complex organ with high cell type heterogeneity and provide a basis for investigating the differentiation of diverse cell layers and spatial transcript profiles.

Highlights Summary Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is classified as a xylem pathogen responsible for bacterial blight of rice causing substantial yield losses in Asia and Africa. Xoo virulence depends on the ability to trigger SWEET sucrose efflux transporters in the xylem parenchyma (XP) by injection of transcription activation like effectors (TALe) into host cells, likely to access host-derived sucrose. To establish infection, Xoo must overcome physical barriers, immune responses and the hydraulic xylem flow. To gain insights into the colonization process, we used translational SWEET11a-GUS reporter lines, scanning electron microscopy, and confocal laser scanning microscopy of Xoo tagged with a fluorescent protein. We found that Xoo can differentiate in vitro into filamentous forms. We mapped the infection route of Xoo along the vasculature, identified distinct spatiotemporal phases of Xoo colonization marked by rod-shaped and, notably, filamentous Xoo cells. Rod-shaped Xoo were found to attach to xylem pits during basipetal progression of the infection. Notably, we found that at later infection stages, Xoo could enter the XP. Strikingly, Xoo adopted a filamentous phenotype that traversed bundle sheath cells and entered mesophyll cells. Chlorosis and necrosis of leaves is thus likely not just due to blockage of xylem flow, but to direct tissue damage. Filamentation had been reported as important for virulence of human pathogens e.g. Yersinia pestis , uropathogenic E. coli and Shigella and had been associated to sugar utilization in Bacillus subtilis . We thus hypothesize that Xoo differentiation during host colonization is critical for virulence. ![Figure][1] ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Heinrich Böll Stiftung, https://ror.org/01vneh441, Stipend to Laura Redzich Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, SFB1535, project ID 458090666/CRC1535/1, EXC-2048/1 – project ID 390686111 Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, https://ror.org/012kf4317, Professorship WBF [1]: pending:yes

Bacterial blight (BB) of rice, caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is one of the major drivers of yield losses in Africa and Asia. Xoo secretes TAL-effectors (TALe) that induce host SWEET sucrose uniporter by binding to the effector binding element (EBE) of SWEET promoters, likely required for Xoo reproduction and virulence. We had multiplex edited the EBEs of three SWEET genes to prevent TALe binding, producing genome-edited (GE’d) rice mega-varieties (IR64, Ciherang-Sub1 for Asia, and Komboka for Africa) that were resistant to a wide spectrum of Xoo strains. Here, we report comprehensive analyses of the GE’d lines, including evaluation of agronomic performance in multi-location multi-season experimental field plots under different fertilization regimes, and tests for the presence/absence of foreign DNA/transgene in the offspring of GE’d lines (IR64-BC1T6, Ciherang-Sub1-BC1T5, Komboka-T3). Various strategies were evaluated, including herbicide tolerance, PCR, DNA gel blotting, whole genome sequencing (WGS), and specific tests stipulated by country-specific biosafety guidelines. Different WGS technologies were evaluated and also used to identify heritability of the edits, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and insertions/deletions (indels) that might have resulted from somaclonal variation and potential GE-induced off-target mutations. Complete genome reference sequences for the parental lines IR64, Ciherang-Sub1, and Komboka are provided. In the field experiments, the GE’d lines did not show performance defects. Together, the results indicate that select GE lines do not contain foreign DNA or transgene fragments and fulfill the requirements for treatment equivalent to classical breeding lines in countries such as India and Kenya. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, INV-063189 Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, https://ror.org/012kf4317, Professorship Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, EXC-2048/1 – project ID 390686111 (CEPLAS)

Bacterial blight (BB) of rice, caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), is one of the major drivers of yield losses in Africa and Asia. Xoo secretes TAL-effectors (TALe) that induce host SWEET sucrose uniporter by binding to the effector binding element (EBE) of SWEET promoters, likely required for Xoo reproduction and virulence. We had multiplex edited the EBEs of three SWEET genes to prevent TALe binding, producing genome-edited (GE'd) rice mega-varieties (IR64, Ciherang-Sub1 for Asia and Komboka for Africa) that were resistant to a wide spectrum of Xoo strains. Here, we report comprehensive analyses of the GE'd lines, including evaluation of agronomic performance in multi-location multi-season experimental field plots under different fertilisation regimes and tests for the presence/absence of foreign DNA/transgene in the offspring of GE'd lines (IR64-BC1T6, Ciherang-Sub1-BC1T5, Komboka-T3). Various strategies were evaluated, including herbicide tolerance, PCR, DNA gel blotting, whole genome sequencing (WGS), and specific tests stipulated by country-specific biosafety guidelines. Different WGS technologies were evaluated and also used to identify the heritability of the edits, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and insertions/deletions (indels) that might have resulted from somaclonal variation and potential GE-induced off-target mutations. Complete genome reference sequences for the parental lines IR64, Ciherang-Sub1, and Komboka are provided. In the field experiments, the GE'd lines did not show performance defects. Together, the results indicate that select GE'd lines do not contain foreign DNA or transgene fragments and fulfil the requirements for treatment equivalent to classical breeding lines in countries such as India and Kenya.

A path to sustainably reduce world hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition is to close the crop yield gap, particularly, losses due to pathogens. Breeding resistant crops is key to achieving this goal, an effort requiring collaboration among stakeholders, scientists, breeders, farmers and policymakers. During a disease outbreak, epidemiologists survey the occurrence of a disease after which pathologists investigate mechanisms to stop an infection. Policymakers then implement strategies with farmers and breeders to overcome the outbreak. Information flow from the field to the lab and back to the field involves several processing hubs that require different information inputs. Failure to communicate the necessary information results in the transfer of meaningless data. Here, we discuss gaps in information acquisition and transfer between the field and laboratory. Using rice bacterial blight disease as an example, we discuss pathogen biology and disease resistance to point out the importance of reporting pathogen strains that caused an outbreak to optimize the deployment of resistant crop varieties. We examine differences between infection in the field and assays performed in the laboratory to draw awareness of possible misinformation concerning plant resistance or susceptibility. We discuss key data considered useful for reporting disease outbreaks, sampling bias, and suggestions for improving data quality. We also touch on the knowledge gap in the state-of-the-art literature regarding disease dispersal and transmission. We use a recent case study to exemplify the gaps mentioned. We conclude by highlighting potential actions that may contribute to food security and to closing of the yield gap.