Pestivirus infection in camels has been insufficiently studied, particularly in Saudi Arabia. In the current work, the seroprevalence of pestivirus infection in camels’ sera (n = 180) in Rafha in northern Saudi Arabia was screened using Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA). Data on age, sex and breed were analysed statistically. Pestivirus seroprevalence was 11.1. It was higher in adults (22.2%) than in young animals (10.5%), higher in females (33.3%) than in males (10.7%) and higher in the Mjahim breed (23.8%) compared to the Magater breed (9.4%). Chi-square analysis revealed a significant correlation between pestivirus infection and breed (p = 0.015), whereas no significant associations were noted with age (p = 0.123) or sex (p = 0.432). Wald statistics indicated that breed (p = 0.005) and sex (p = 0.048) were significant predictors of pestivirus infection. Contribution: To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the risk factors associated with pestivirus infection in camels in northern Saudi Arabia. The results can help explore epidemiological parameters and aid in control, while future research should include larger samples and molecular techniques to verify active infection.

Multiple outbreaks with high mortality rates and a pattern of disease occurrence similar to peste des petits ruminants (PPR) were observed in sheep and goats across many states of Sudan between 2015 and 2018. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate and identify the cause of these disease outbreaks. A total of 276 blood and lung tissue samples were collected from infected sheep (n = 223) and goats (n = 53). Sample analysis in an IC-ELISA revealed the presence of the PPRV antigen in 56.9% of sheep and 62.3% of goat samples. Twenty-seven [sheep (18) and goats (9)] PPRV-positive samples from IC-ELISA were subsequently confirmed positive using the PPRV N-gene-based RT-PCR. Two PPR viruses were isolated from infected small ruminant lung tissues in Vero cells. The partial N-gene sequences for five PPRV strains originating from sheep and goats were determined. Phylogenetic tree grouped PPRV strains identified in this study in lineage IV in sub-lineage NEA (North-East Africa), with the highest sequence identity observed with strains circulating in North African countries. This study and earlier published phylogenetic analysis and patterns of animal movements suggest that the transboundary transmission of PPRV lineage IV strains between East and North African countries has been happening since 2008 and established a new North-East Africa episystem that needs to be disrupted for the successful global eradication of PPR.

Avian influenza (AI) is a significant disease affecting chickens and other avian species. Wild birds are thought to contribute to the virus transmission. The present study intends to explore the existence of AI type A virus in wild birds at the Six April Zoo, Khartoum State, Sudan. A total of 42 cloacal and tracheal swabs were collected from clinically healthy individuals belonging to five different wild bird species. The selected wild bird species were Common crane Grus grus, Sudan crowned crane Balearica pavonina, Helmeted guinea fowl Numida meleagris, Duck sp. Anatidae and Chestnut-billed sand grouse Pterocles exustus. Swabs were examined for AI virus antigen using the agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) test, and all tested swabs produced positive results. The swab samples were inoculated into embryonated chicken eggs. The isolated virus was identified by AGID test and polymerase chain reaction. The virus was isolated from swabs collected from Grus grus, Balearica pavonina, Numida meleagris, Duck sp. Anatidae and Pterocles exustus. Subtyping of the isolated viruses was performed using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, which identified the H5 subtype. Contribution: The present study confirmed the existence and isolation of type A AI virus from different species of wild birds as well as subtyping of its virus for the first time in Khartoum State, Sudan.

To investigate the existence of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), parainfluenza virus 3 (PIV-3) and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) as well as its coinfections, a total of 420 pneumonic lung tissue samples were collected from slaughterhouses in three different areas. Samples were examined for the three viruses using antigen detection enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test, and positive results were further confirmed using fluorescent antibody test and polymerase chain reaction. Prevalences detected were 10.47% for BVDV, 11.9% for parainfluenza virus type (PIV-3) and 7.6% for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Observed coinfections were bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) and PIV-3 in 8.1%, BVD and RSV in only two samples (1%). Existence of all three viruses was detected in two samples (1%).Contribution: In this study, infection of the three viruses was confirmed in cattle and existence of its coinfection is documented for the first time.

Rabies is endemic in Sudan with continuing outbreaks occurring annually, the most common animals affected are dogs, followed by goats and equids. This work focused on equid rabies, to elucidate the current situation of the disease through analysis of reports of equid rabies outbreaks in Sudan during 2010–2022 supported by laboratory confirmation of the disease. During the study period, 66 animals were affected during 35 equid rabies outbreaks. The highest incidences were found in Al Gezira (30.3%), followed by Darfur (24.2%) and Kordofan (15.2%). The highest incidence rate was observed during 2018 (33.3%), followed by 2015 (16.7%). Within seasons, the highest incidence rate was reported during October – December (33.3%), followed by July – September (30.3%). Chi-square analysis revealed a significant correlation between rabid animals and year, season, and state. Wald statistics demonstrated that year and season had a significant association with the disease. Virus antigen was identified (72.2%) in brain tissues using the fluorescent antibody test. Viral nucleic acid was amplified (n = 6) with a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay.Contribution: As equids are kept in close contact with humans and other animals in the country, according to the present investigation, equid rabies in Sudan is a potential public health concern, emphasising the importance of implementing effective control measures.

Rabies is a lethal zoonotic encephalomyelitis and a major challenge to public and animal health. Livestock are affected by rabies mostly through bites of rapid dogs or wildlife carnivore\'s species. They are considered as ‘dead-end’ hosts that do not transmit the virus. Rabies in livestock has been endemic in many developing countries for many years and diagnosed through clinical signs and dog-biting history. An introduction on rabies situation in farm animals will be given then subchapters including `rabies in bovines, rabies in small ruminants, rabies in swine and rabies in camelids. In each subchapter we shall discuss, epidemiology, modes of transmission, diagnosis and prevention and control measures.

The existence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in domestic ruminants and camels in Sudan during 2008–2012 was investigated. Lung tissues and serum samples were randomly collected from sheep, goats, cattle, and camels at different areas of Sudan. A total of 12,384 serum samples were collected from clinically healthy 7413 sheep, 1988 camels, 1501 cattle, 1459 goats, and 23 gazelles at different areas in the Sudan. They were examined for PPR antibodies using competitive ELISA (cELISA). The overall detected seroprevalence of PPR in tested sera was 49.4%; seroprevalence values within species were 67.1, 48.2, 25.8, 2.1, and 21.7% in sheep, goat, cattle, camels, and gazelles, respectively. The highest seroprevalence (68.1%) was observed in sera collected from Darfur states, then the central states (54.3%). A total of 1276 lung tissue samples (623 sheep, 324 cattle, 220 camels, and 109 goats) were collected. The majority of lung samples were collected from clinically healthy animals that showed lesions on PM in slaughterhouses (95%) and during PPR outbreaks; samples were tested for PPR antigen using immunocapture ELISA (IcELISA). PPR antigen was detected in 233 out of the 1276 tested samples (18.3%). Positive results were observed in samples collected from clinically healthy and diseased animals. The observed prevalence values in each species were 33.6, 21.1, 15.4, and 12.3% in camel, goat, sheep, and cattle, respectively. PPR antigen was detected in samples from different areas; however, the highest prevalence (63.9%) was found in samples collected from the eastern states, then Khartoum state (28%). Trials for virus isolation were done in different cell cultures. Out of 30 IcELISA-positive samples inoculated in primary bovine and ovine kidney cells, Vero cells, the PPR virus was successfully isolated from 15 (eight sheep, five camels, and two goats) samples in the three cell culture types. Using RT-PCR, PPRV nucleic acid was detected in all 25 IcELISA-positive tested samples.

Investigation on Influenza Virus A Infection in Different Animals in Sudan Wegdan, H.A., Intisar, K. S., Shaza, M.M., Algezoli, O.A., Ballal, A., Ihsan, H.A., Sahar, M.E., Baraa, A.M., Taha K.M., Nada E.M., Nouri Y.M., Ali,Y.H. Virology Department, Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Box 8067, Khartoum, Sudan Viral vaccines Department, Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Box 8067, Khartoum, Sudan Atbara Veterinary Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 121 Atbara, River Nile State, Sudan Wad Medani Veterinary Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 555, Gezira State, Sudan 5 ElObied Veterinary Research Laboratories, P.O. Box 373, North Kordofan State, Sudan

The existence of pestivirus antigen in pneumonic sheep and goat lungs was investigated. A total of 382 pneumonic lung samples were collected from sheep (305) and goats (77) at slaughterhouses in five different areas in Sudan during 2010 – 2013. Collected samples were screened for pestivirus antigen using ELISA, 32 (10.5%) of sheep and 9 (11.7%) of goat samples were found to be positive. The highest prevalence (44.4%) was found in samples collected from Khartoum followed by Gezira in the center and Nyala in the west (20%). FAT was used to confirm the ELISA results. All ELISA positive samples were retested for pestivirus using PCR, with positive reaction. Sequence analysis indicated that the sequence of tested samples is identical to the Bovine viral diarrhea virus-1 (BVDV-1) sequence accession number (AF220247.1.), except a nucleotide substitution from A to T at position 9.The results confirmed the existence of BVDV-1 in pneumonic sheep and goat lungs reflecting a role played by this virus in pneumonia of small ruminants. This is the first report describing the detection of pestivirus antigen and nucleic acid and the sequence analysis of the circulating virus in small ruminants in Sudan.

1. Department of Microbiology, University of science and technology, P.O. Box: 30, Omdurman, Sudan. 2. Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Box 80 67, Khartoum, Sudan. 3. Current address, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Arts, Northern Boarders University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 4. Department of Virology, Central Laboratory, Ministry of science and Technology, P.O. Box 7099, Khartoum, Sudan.

Eight outbreaks of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats were reported in White Nile State, Sudan, between 2008 and 2009. A mortality rate of 4.2% was reported across the different outbreaks. Clinically the disease was characterised by high fever, ocular and nasal discharge, pneumonia, ulceration of the mucous membranes, diarrhoea and death. The postmortem findings included necrotic lesions in the mouth and gastrointestinal tract, and swollen, oedematous lymph nodes associated with the lungs and intestine. Of the 209 serum samples tested by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, 113 (54%) were found positive. Peste des petits ruminants virus was confirmed in tissues, nasal swabs and blood samples by immunocapture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction and isolation of the virus in culture of lamb testicle cells.

Background: The present study was to investigate the incidence of the respiratory syncytial virus infection in children and to characterize the RSV circulating in Khartoum state during 2011-12 winter seasons. Methodology: Throat swab specimens collected from 224 children less than 5 years old, with respiratory tract infections admitted at Khartoum Hospitals in winter season (2011- 2012), were screened for RSV using direct immunofluorescence assay (DFA) and reverse transcription- polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Isolation in cell culture followed by nucleotide sequencing and bioinformatics analysis based on the G gene, were done for the RT- PCR positive RSV samples. Results: Out of 224 patients, RSV infections were detected in 136 (60.7%) patients, by using DFA technique, and 44 (19.6%) patients using RT-PCR. 22 strains of RSV were isolated in Hep-2 cell line. The clinical symptoms including Bronchiolitis, Pneumonia, Asthma and Allergy showed significantly different rates (p<0.05) in having RSV infection, (P-value = 0.017, 0.002, 0.0001, 0.0001) respectively. Bioinformatics analysis of nucleotide sequences of 7 cell culture isolated RSV strains revealed that all analyzed RSV belonged to the RSV-A genotype. Phylogenetic tree of RSV-A sequences showed that, all Sudanese strains were grouped with strains from Belgium and Saudi Arabia. Conclusions: This is the first report on molecular characterization that describes the circulation of RSV genotype in Sudan. DFA and RT-PCR offers rapid methods for detection of RSV in hospitalized children with Respiratory tract infection (RTI).

The presence of three of the main respiratory viruses found in camels, that is, peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), bovine para-influenza virus 3 (PIV3) and bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1), was investigated and isolation of these viruses in different cell cultures was carried out. A total of 100 pneumonic camel lungs collected from slaughterhouses were screened for the presence of PPR, PIV3 and BHV-1 viral antigens using ELISA. Forty five were found to be positive for PPRV, 15 for PIV3 and 4 for BHV-1 virus antigen. Of these samples, 15 PPR, 12 PIV3 and 3 BHV-1 positives were inoculated in MDBK cell line, primary and secondary lamb and bovine kidney cells. Each of the three viruses were successfully isolated in the different cultures used; CPE was seen at day 14 for PPR, day 3 for PIV3 and day 2 for BHV-1 after infection; CPE was observed, characterized by cell rounding, elongation with some syncytia formation for both PPR and PIV3, and BHV-1 samples showed cell rounding, edematous cells and cell sheet detachment. This is the first report of the isolation of PPR virus from camels. Key words: Camels, cell cultures, respiratory viruses, Sudan.

This report describes the details of outbreaks of Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) which occurred during 2008 in Khartoum and River Nile States in Sudan. An outbreak was reported in a sheep flock at the southern part of the State (Soba) in Khartoum, with 100% morbidity and mortality rates. In ElDamer city at River Nile State, the morbidity rate was 31.4% while mortality rate was 17.1% in the total animal population of 3,500. PPR antigen was detected in seven samples from both outbreaks using immunocapture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (IcELISA). The PPR ELISA results were confirmed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Using cELISA, only one serum was sent from Khartoum and 6 out of 13 sera from ElDamer were positive for PPR antibodies. Key words: Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), outbreaks, sheep, Sudan.

Bovine parainfluenza virus type3 (BPIV-3) is a virus that causes respiratory infection in cattle worldwide. A total of 100 lung specimens condemned due to pneumonia were collected from Elobied slaughter house at North Kordofan state. Sandwich ELISA was used to detect BPIV-3 antigen in lung tissue specimens, Vero cells were used to isolate PIV-3 virus. Direct immunoflourcent antibodies test (FAT) was used to confirm the ELISA positive results of BPIV3 antigen in lung tissue specimens as well as for the identification of the isolated virus. PCR was used for detection of BPIV-3 genome. PIV-3 antigen was detected in 20% of the 100 cattle lung tissue specimens tested by ELISA while it was detected in 25 (25%) cattle lung specimens tested by FAT. Using FAT, all ELISA positives for PIV-3 and 5 of the 80 ELISA negative specimens were found to be positive. One sample was isolated in Vero cells. PIV-3 genome was detected in all samples tested by PCR.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an important viral disease of sheep and goats, it causes huge economic losses in susceptible animals. The prevalence of PPR in sheep and goats in White Nile State, Sudan was studied; passive haemagglutinatin test (PHA) and competitive ELISA were used to detect PPR antibodies in 517 serum samples collected from animals that showed symptoms suggestive of PPR disease as well as from clinically healthy ones at White Nile State, Sudan. The serum samples were tested for presence of PPRV antibodies using cELISA and PHA test. The results obtained by PHA were compared with that of ELISA. 314 (60%) of serum samples were positive by cELISA while 291(56.2%) were positive by PHA. By both tests, 262 (83%) out of the tested samples were found positive for PPRV antibodies. The agreement between the two tests was 84.3%, the relative sensitivity was 84% and specificity was 85.2%. Age and localities appears to be risk factor for cELISA and PHA PPR seropositivity. PHA was found to be a useful technique for detecting PPRV antibodies. Key words: Peste des petits ruminants, passive haemagglutination test, cELISA.

The aim of this study was to determine the role of Toxolasma gondii and rotavirus infection in camel-calves diarrhea in Sudan. Toxoplasma gondii and Rotavirus are considered as causative agents of calf-diarrhea. 278 serum samples were collected from diarrheic camel-calf (less than one year age) in five locations in Sudan ; River Nile(North), El-Gedarif (East), Sennar &Blue Nile (Central to South) and kordofan (West). Out of 278 serum samples,157 sera (56.5%) were sero-positive for anti-Toxoplasma antibodies by latex agglutination test, ELISA test was applied on the sero-reacted sera, IgM and IgG were detected in sera. Also a competitive ELISA kits for rotavirus antibodies detection were used , results showed that 66 sera ( 23.7%) were sero-positive for rotavirus antibodies . Statistical analysis using software analysis programs showed no significant difference (P>.05) between the five surveyed locations for both Toxoplasma and rotavirus infections. The sero-prevalence of rotavirus in different age groups was found to be statistically significant (P .05) in the occurrence of sero-prevalence of Toxoplasma and rotavirus in males and females.

A survey was conducted to investigate the prevalence of Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and sheep pox (SP) as the most economically important viral diseases of small ruminants in Marawi province at Northern state, Sudan. A total of 254 sera samples (164 ovine and 90 caprine) were collected from various localities in Marawi province during May, 2008. All collected sera were examined for PPR antibodies using competitive enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (cELISA) and for SP antibodies using passive Haemagglutination test. 42 (25.6%) ovine and 17 (18.8%) caprine sera were positive for PPR antibodies while 51 (31%) ovine and 34 (37.7%) caprine sera were positive for sheep pox antibodies. Keywords: PPR, Sheep pox, cELISA, PHA, Sudan.