Characterizing genetically distinct populations of primates is important for protecting biodiversity and effectively allocating conservation resources. Skywalker gibbons ( Hoolock tianxing ) were first described in 2017, with the only confirmed population consisting of 150 individuals in Mt. Gaoligong, Yunnan Province, China. Based on river geography, the distribution of the skywalker gibbon has been hypothesized to extend into Myanmar between the N’Mai Kha and Ayeyarwaddy Rivers to the west, and the Salween River (named the Thanlwin River in Myanmar and Nujiang River in China) to the east. We conducted acoustic point-count sampling surveys, collected noninvasive samples for molecular mitochondrial cytochrome b gene identification, and took photographs for morphological identification at six sites in Kachin State and three sites in Shan State to determine the presence of skywalker gibbons in predicted suitable forest areas in Myanmar. We also conducted 50 semistructured interviews with members of communities surrounding gibbon range forests to understand potential threats. In Kachin State, we audio-recorded 23 gibbon groups with group densities ranging between 0.57 and 3.6 group/km 2 . In Shan State, we audio-recorded 21 gibbon groups with group densities ranging between 0.134 and 1.0 group/km 2 . Based on genetic data obtained from skin and saliva samples, the gibbons were identified as skywalker gibbons (99.54–100% identity). Although these findings increase the species’ known population size and confirmed distribution, skywalker gibbons in Myanmar are threatened by local habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. Most of the skywalker gibbon population in Myanmar exists outside protected areas. Therefore, the IUCN Red List status of the skywalker gibbon should remain as Endangered.

OBJECTIVE:This study aimed to identify the relationship between bovine brucellosis prevalence, farmers' knowledge, attitude, practice (KAP), and social factors on migratory draft cattle and smallholder dairy farms in the central dry zone of Myanmar.METHODS:This cross-sectional study was conducted on 54 migratory and 38 dairy cattle farms between August 2020 and February 2021. A structured questionnaire was used to identify farmers' behaviors. Bulk milk was sampled and tested using indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (I-ELISA). STATA 17 was used for all the analyses.RESULTS:Migratory cattle farms had a higher farm level brucellosis prevalence (14.8%) than dairy farms (2.6%; χ2 = 3.75; df = 1; p = 0.05). Only 2.8% of the farmers had knowledge about brucellosis, while 39.1% and 41.6% had attitudes and farm practices with respect to brucellosis, respectively in the study area. Socio-economic attribute of training in animal husbandry (p<0.01), raising system (p<0.01), practice of separating the aborted cow (p<0.01) were negatively associated to brucellosis. The overall farm level brucellosis prevalence was strongly associated with cattle herd size (p = 0.01), free movement grazing practices (p<0.01), practice of self-removal of placental debris without using personal protective equipment (p<0.01) and farmers' attitudes towards eating cow placenta debris (p<0.01).CONCLUSION:Farmers had little knowledge of brucellosis. Attitudes and practices differed significantly between migratory and dairy farmers. Training and extension programs are necessary to make farmers aware of their KAP situation since livestock migration and the custom of eating cow placental debris contribute to the spread of brucellosis. Persistent efforts are required to reduce the adverse effects of brucellosis. Therefore, the study suggests that a feasible control intervention and public awareness campaigns need to be conducted regarding methods of preventing human exposure to brucellosis.

In Myanmar, where backyard, semi-intensive, and intensive pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) farming coexist, there is limited understanding of the zoonotic risks and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) associated with these farming practices. This study was conducted to investigate the prevalence, AMR and genomic features of Salmonella in pig farms in the Yangon region and the impact of farm intensification to provide evidence to support risk-based future management approaches. Twenty-three farms with different production scales were sampled for two periods with three sampling-visit each. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests and whole-genome sequencing were performed on the isolates. The prevalence of Salmonella was 44.5% in samples collected from backyard farms, followed by intensive (39.5%) and semi-intensive farms (19.5%). The prevalence of multi-drug resistant isolates from intensive farms (45/84, 53.6%) was higher than those from backyard (32/171, 18.7%) and semi-intensive farms (25/161, 15.5%). Among 28 different serovars identified, S. Weltevreden (40; 14.5%), S. Kentucky (38; 13.8%), S. Stanley (35, 12.7%), S. Typhimurium (22; 8.0%) and S. Brancaster (20; 7.3%) were the most prevalent serovars and accounted for 56.3% of the genome sequenced strains. The diversity of Salmonella serovars was highest in semi-intensive and backyard farms (21 and 19 different serovars, respectively). The high prevalence of globally emerging S. Kentucky ST198 was detected on backyard farms. The invasive-infection linked typhoid-toxin gene (cdtB) was found in the backyard farm isolated S. Typhimurium, relatively enriched in virulence and AMR genes, presented an important target for future surveillance. While intensification, in terms of semi-intensive versus backyard production, maybe a mitigator for zoonotic risk through a lower prevalence of Salmonella, intensive production appears to enhance AMR-associated risks. Therefore, it remains crucial to closely monitor the AMR and virulence potential of this pathogen at all scales of production. The results underscored the complex relationship between intensification of animal production and the prevalence, diversity and AMR of Salmonella from pig farms in Myanmar.

The expansion and intensification of livestock production is predicted to promote the emergence of pathogens. As pathogens sometimes jump between species, this can affect the health of humans as well as livestock. Here, we investigate how livestock microbiota can act as a source of these emerging pathogens through analysis of Streptococcus suis , a ubiquitous component of the respiratory microbiota of pigs that is also a major cause of disease on pig farms and an important zoonotic pathogen. Combining molecular dating, phylogeography, and comparative genomic analyses of a large collection of isolates, we find that several pathogenic lineages of S. suis emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries, during an early period of growth in pig farming. These lineages have since spread between countries and continents, mirroring trade in live pigs. They are distinguished by the presence of three genomic islands with putative roles in metabolism and cell adhesion, and an ongoing reduction in genome size, which may reflect their recent shift to a more pathogenic ecology. Reconstructions of the evolutionary histories of these islands reveal constraints on pathogen emergence that could inform control strategies, with pathogenic lineages consistently emerging from one subpopulation of S. suis and acquiring genes through horizontal transfer from other pathogenic lineages. These results shed light on the capacity of the microbiota to rapidly evolve to exploit changes in their host population and suggest that the impact of changes in farming on the pathogenicity and zoonotic potential of S. suis is yet to be fully realized.

Nonhuman primates living in proximity to humans increase risks for sylvatic arbovirus transmission. We collected serum samples from nonhuman primates in Hlawga National Park near Yangon, Myanmar, and detected antibodies against chikungunya (33%) and Japanese encephalitis (4%) viruses. Buffer zones between primate and human communities might reduce cross-species arbovirus transmission.

Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) causes lumpy skin disease in cattle and buffaloes, which is associated with significant animal production and economic losses. Since the 2000s, LSDV has spread from Africa to several countries in the Middle East; Europe; and Asia; including, more recently, several south-east Asian countries. In November 2020, Myanmar reported its first LSD outbreak. This study reports on the first incursion of LSD in Myanmar and the molecular analysis of the LSDV detected. Staff from the Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (LBVD) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Irrigation collected samples from cattle with suspected LSD infection. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations’ Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD) and the Joint International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)/FAO program’s Animal Health and Production laboratory provided LSDV diagnostic support to two regional veterinary diagnostic laboratories in Myanmar. Samples from 13 cattle tested positive by real-time PCR. Selected samples underwent sequence analysis in IAEA laboratories. The results show that the Myanmar LSDV sequences clustered with LSDV isolates from Bangladesh and India, LSDV Kenya, and LSDV NI-2490. Further characterization showed that the Myanmar LSDV is 100% identical to isolates from Bangladesh and India, implying a common source of introduction. These findings inform diagnosis and development of control strategies.

Frugivorous bats play a vital role in tropical ecosystems as pollinators and seed dispersers but are also important vectors of zoonotic diseases. Myanmar sits at the intersection of numerous bioregions and contains habitats that are important for many endangered and endemic species. This rapidly developing country also forms a connection between hotspots of emerging human diseases. We deployed Global Positioning System collars to track the movements of 10 Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus) in the agricultural landscapes of central Myanmar. We used clustering analysis to identify foraging sites and high-utilization areas. As part of a larger viral surveillance study in bats of Myanmar, we also collected oral and rectal swab samples from 29 bats to test for key emerging viral diseases in this colony. There were no positive results detected for our chosen viruses. We analyzed their foraging movement behavior and evaluated selected foraging sites for their potential as human-wildlife interface sites.

Between 2006 and 2019, serological surveys in unvaccinated domestic ducks reared outdoors in Myanmar were performed, using a haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test, to confirm H5 avian influenza virus circulation and assess temporal and spatial distribution. Positive test results occurred every year that samples were collected. The annual proportion of positive farms ranged from 7.1% to 77.2%. The results revealed silent/sub-clinical influenza A (H5) virus circulation, even in years and States/Regions with no highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreaks reported. Further analysis of the 2018/19 results revealed considerable differences in seroconversion rates between four targeted States/Regions and between years, and showed seroconversion before and during the sampling period. By the end of the trial, a high proportion of farms were seronegative, leaving birds vulnerable to infection when sold. Positive results likely indicate infection with Gs/GD/96-lineage H5Nx HPAI viruses rather than other H5 subtype low-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses. The findings suggested persistent, but intermittent, circulation of Gs/GD/96-lineage H5Nx HPAI viruses in domestic ducks, despite the veterinary services' outbreak detection and control efforts. The role of wild birds in transmission remains unclear but there is potential for spill-over in both directions. The findings of this study assist the national authorities in the design of appropriate, holistic avian influenza control programs.

The recent emergence of bat-borne zoonotic viruses warrants vigilant surveillance in their natural hosts. Of particular concern is the family of coronaviruses, which includes the causative agents of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and most recently, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), an epidemic of acute respiratory illness originating from Wuhan, China in December 2019. Viral detection, discovery, and surveillance activities were undertaken in Myanmar to identify viruses in animals at high risk contact interfaces with people. Free-ranging bats were captured, and rectal and oral swabs and guano samples collected for coronaviral screening using broadly reactive consensus conventional polymerase chain reaction. Sequences from positives were compared to known coronaviruses. Three novel alphacoronaviruses, three novel betacoronaviruses, and one known alphacoronavirus previously identified in other southeast Asian countries were detected for the first time in bats in Myanmar. Ongoing land use change remains a prominent driver of zoonotic disease emergence in Myanmar, bringing humans into ever closer contact with wildlife, and justifying continued surveillance and vigilance at broad scales.

We describe 2-season, risk-based, virological surveillance for zoonotic avian influenza in Myanmar and report the first detection of influenza A subtypes H5N6 and H9N2 in Myanmar. The study focused mainly on the live bird markets in border townships, where illegal poultry importation from China usually takes place. The objective was to enhance early warning for low pathogenic avian influenza A(H7N9) incursion. The study followed the guidelines of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations for influenza A(H7N9) surveillance in uninfected countries. The sampling strategy was risk-based at all sampling levels. Sample collection and laboratory analysis were carried out with the government of the Union of the Republic of Myanmar. Laboratory testing was according to a previously published FAO laboratory protocol and algorithm designed to detect a range of influenza A subtypes. Challenges to implementation are outlined. The study provided evidence that the H7N9 subtype had not entered Myanmar but detected other subtypes, including H5N6 and H9N2. Although there were logistical difficulties associated with nation-related issues, the results highlight the importance and feasibility of this risk-based active surveillance, which should be urgently established in other countries, especially those located at the east-southeast influenza epicenter.