Methanol, as a low-carbon oxygenated fuel, shows great potential for application in compression-ignition engines, yet its low cetane number poses challenges for auto-ignition. In this work, a pre-chamber turbulent jet ignited methanol spray diffusion combustion system is proposed to achieve single-fuel methanol compression ignition. A large-eddy-simulation approach coupled with a reduced chemical kinetic mechanism was validated against visualization experiments and subsequently employed to systematically investigate the influence of pre-chamber jet-orifice angles (20 degrees/40 degrees/60 degrees) on combustion characteristics. Results show that the small-angle orifice yields the lowest turbulent kinetic energy, whereas the medium- and large-angle configurations exhibit significantly enhanced turbulence intensity accompanied by a slight reduction in mass flow rate. As the jet orifice angle (theta) increases, the consequent change in jet trajectory shifts the impingement point from the downstream vapor-phase region to the upstream liquid-phase region of the spray, which intensifies droplet disturbance, promotes spray dispersion and evaporation, slightly reduces liquid-phase penetration, and shortens the flame lift-off length. Consequently, the combustion mode transitions from lean- to rich-mixture diffusion combustion. This study provides a theoretical foundation and key design guidelines for developing methanol engines with high methanol-substitution ratios, high power density, and simplified system architecture.

Low-pressure ammonia injection suffers severe ammonia slip and high NOx emissions. In contrast, dual direct injection of ammonia and dimethyl ether (DME) offersa promising low-carbon alternative. However, the underlyingmechanisms, especially how the ammonia post-injection affects the combustion mode, remain unclear. This study investigates how the injection strategy affects combustion mode transition, performance, and emissions in an ammonia/DME engine. Results reveal two distinct combustion modes governed by ammonia post-injection timing: an early-injection RCCI-like mode and a late-injection DDFS mode, with opposite effects of premixed ammonia ratio on combustion phasing. Crucially, the transition between these modes is not dictated by the injection sequence alone, but arises from a dynamic competition between concentration and reactivity stratifications, controllable through the ammonia pre-injection ratio, DME ratio, and DME injection timing. This stratification competition defines a critical transition point that may shift away from the DME injection timing under weakened reactivity stratification, overturning the conventional understanding. The RCCI-like mode favors higher indicated thermal efficiency, while the DDFS mode shows superior NOx and NH3 emission reduction, providing clear guidance for combustion strategy selection.

The instability mechanisms of airflow and the simplification of numerical models that overlook structural details still leave considerable room for improvement in the optimization of geometric configurations to enhance atomization performance in air-assisted injection systems. In this study, a three-dimensional transient two-phase gas-liquid numerical model, coupled with both Euler-Euler and Euler-Lagrange methods, is developed to investigate the effects of different nozzle geometries on spray atomization characteristics and droplet breakup mechanisms. The results demonstrate that nozzle geometry substantially impacts the spray angle, penetration depth and droplet size distribution, with divergent geometries generating distinct levels of turbulence and vortex structures. The Sauter mean diameters of the convex, conical and concave nozzles are 5.32,4.38 and 4.24 mu m, respectively. In comparison with the convex nozzle, the concave nozzle generates the most reduced size of droplets, exhibiting a 36.03% decrease in the number of large droplets and a 12.5% reduction in the wall film mass. This signifies an enhanced distribution of droplet size and a superior atomization performance. The curvature of the concave nozzle induces the formation of oblique shock waves and promotes the generation of secondary vortices, which play a key role in enhancing droplet breakup and atomization efficiency. The findings of this study can help create more efficient and eco-friendly combustion systems, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving air quality. Abbreviations: AAFI, Air-assisted fuel injection; KH-RT, Kelvin-Helmholtz-Rayleigh Taylor; LES, Large eddy simulation; Mie-LIF, Mie-Laser-Induced Fluorescence; MAC, Marker and cell consumption; CLS-VOF, Coupled LSVOF; HRIC, High-resolution interface capturing; HiRAC, High-resolution artificial compressive; AMR, Adaptive mesh refinement; PTV, Particle tracking velocity; PDF, Probability density function; AFR, Air-Fuel ration; VOF, Volume of fluid; BTE, Brake Thermal Efficiency; PIC, Particle in cell; LS, Level-set; CFD, Computational fluid dynamics; STACS, Switching technique for advection and capturing of surfaces; CICSAM, Compressive interface capturing for arbitrary meshes; PISO, Pressure implicit with splitting of operators; SMD, Sauter Mean Diameter; MA, Mach Number; AM, Air mass.

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems are widely employed in power generation, diesel engines, and industrial processes to mitigate NOx emissions. The atomization performance of urea injector nozzles significantly affects NOx conversion and urea crystallization. This study introduces a novel Droplet Tracking Velocimetry (DTV) technique integrating the circular Hough transform with Voronoi-based tracking to simultaneously measure droplet size and velocity in hollow-cone sprays from pressure-swirl nozzles. Comparative experiments with Phase Doppler Interferometry (PDI) and Malvern laser diffraction reveal that DTV achieves over 90% velocity reconstruction accuracy and droplet size error below 7%, outperforming the other two methods in resolving transient spray heterogeneity. Axial and radial analyses show that the Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) increases progressively with distance from the nozzle and exhibits significant radial growth due to the interaction between high-speed large droplets and low-speed small droplets. The DTV method provides comprehensive spatially resolved data, offering critical insights for optimizing SCR injector design and improving NOx reduction efficiency.

The identification of alternative fuels and the reduction of carbon emissions are key to advancing future engines. Low-carbon-neutral fuels, being more volatile and higher in oxygen than conventional diesel, are gaining widespread use. Moreover, flame-wall interaction is an inevitable consequence of direct fuel injection strategies. To optimize fuel properties and develop efficient, environmentally friendly combustion technologies, it is essential to study the spray and near-wall flame behaviour of various alternative fuels. Polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether (PODE), known for its high cetane number (CN) and oxygen content, can enhance ignition and combustion performance when blended with diesel, particularly in low-oxygen environments. By using a constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC) with integrated optical diagnostics and under different oxygen conditions, the study examined the spray and combustion characteristics of n-dodecane (Nc12) blended with PODE3 at different ratios (pure Nc12, P25 [75 vol% Nc12 + 25 vol% PODE3], and P50 [50 vol% Nc12 + 50 vol% PODE3]). Key findings revealed that wall interaction significantly enhances the influence of PODE3 on ignition behavior and flame lift-off length behavior. The addition of PODE3 results in a noticeable reduction in wall OH* intensity, with this effect being more pronounced at elevated injection pressures and under 21 % oxygen concentration. Notable morphological differences in natural luminosity were observed between the two oxygen levels. The practical implications of this work lie in the potential for PODE3 blends to improve combustion efficiency and reduce soot emissions, which are crucial for advancing environmentally friendly technologies in diesel engines, particularly under oxygen-lean conditions simulating high exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) scenarios.

Addressing the current lack of research on efficient cogeneration optimization for ammonia-fueled solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) in urban energy systems, this study presents and systematically evaluates an ammonia-fueled SOFC system designed for urban heat exchange stations. An exothermic ammonia SOFC thermodynamic model was established using Aspen Plus, and four system configurations were designed. By varying key parameters such as anode off-gas recirculation (AOGR) rate, fuel utilization (Uf), and steam separation rate (Rss), the study investigated their influence on net electrical efficiency and thermoelectric ratio. It was found that AOGR effectively enhances fuel utilization efficiency, while the multi-pass heat exchanger (MH) structure intensifies waste heat recovery. The steam separation (SS) unit optimizes water vapor balance and reaction environment. Among the designs, Design D demonstrates the best overall performance, achieving a system's net electrical efficiency of 64.52% under conditions of Uf = 0.85, AOGR = 0.5, and Rss = 0.6. Multi-parameter optimization revealed that the system achieves efficient and stable operation within the ranges of Uf = 0.7-0.85, AOGR ratio = 0.4-0.8, and Rss = 0.4-0.7. Focusing on a integrated (AOGR-MH-SS) system configuration for urban heating stations-a scenario not extensively explored previously-this study conducts a systematic quantification and comparative analysis of its electrothermal performance enhancement mechanism. The results provide crucial theoretical foundations and design guidance for the engineering application of ammonia-based fuel cells in urban low-carbon energy supply and distributed energy systems.

This study addresses the critical gap in understanding fire propagation in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) by investigating the synergistic effects of battery thermal runaway and gasoline combustion. This research employs both experimental validation and numerical simulation to develop a validated full-vehicle fire simulation framework, incorporating necessary simplifications to analyze fire dynamics, focusing on the influence of battery state-of-charge (SOC) and the effectiveness of aerogel insulation. The model captures the three-phase fire progression: thermal diffusion within the battery, ignition of surrounding materials, and rapid full-vehicle fire spread. Higher SOC levels lead to earlier thermal runaway, faster fire development, and increased overall temperatures. Critically, the presence of gasoline significantly amplifies fire severity. With a 100% SOC, peak combustion occurs at the fuel tank, reaching over 1200 degrees C and a peak heat release rate of 9000 kW. A 100 mm aerogel insulation barrier effectively prevents fuel tank ignition by limiting the fuel tank temperature to approximately 200 degrees C, while a mere 10 mm layer proves inadequate. These findings highlight the critical need to consider SOC-fuel interactions in vehicle safety design and demonstrate the effectiveness of aerogel insulation in mitigating HEV fire risks.

Polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (PODEn/OMEx) are increasingly recognized as promising low-emission alternatives or blending components for petroleum diesel, supported by favorable physicochemical characteristics and a strong potential to reduce particulate matter and greenhouse-gas emissions while improving energy security through fuel diversification. This review synthesizes evidence from approximately 300 studies to evaluate PODE across the full value chain, encompassing feedstock options, production routes, techno-economic considerations, catalytic synthesis pathways, and the chemical-kinetic understanding of combustion. Particular emphasis is placed on how PODE's defining properties, high oxygen content, absence of C–C bonds, and elevated cetane number translate into distinct spray and combustion behavior in compression-ignition engines. Compared with conventional diesel, variations in density, viscosity, volatility, and surface tension shape atomization quality, spray penetration, droplet size, and mixing processes, which in turn influence ignition, heat-release characteristics, combustion efficiency, and emissions formation. The review integrates experimental diagnostics (including optical studies), computational fluid dynamics, and mechanistic analyses to consolidate current knowledge and identify critical gaps that limit technological readiness, particularly material compatibility concerns associated with fuel polarity and the need for injection-system optimization to ensure long-term durability and stable spray patterns. By consolidating these opportunities and challenges under realistic operating conditions, this work provides a coherent framework to guide future research on tailored combustion strategies and engine designs, supporting the broader adoption of PODE-based fuels in cleaner, more efficient transportation energy systems.

Fossil fuels have powered transportation and industry for over a century, promoting economic growth at the cost of environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Research into alternative fuels such as n-pentanol, a biomass-derived biofuel with emissions-reducing and combustion-boosting properties, has been prompted as a result. This study investigated the effects of single and double injections of 60% by volume of n-pentanol and 40% by volume of diesel at varying intake temperatures and injection pressures. For the double injection, the main injection (representing 80% of the total fuel mass) was injected at -15 degrees CA aTDC. The remaining fuel mass, which constitutes the pilot injection, was injected at various start-of-injection times ranging from -15 degrees CA aTDC to -35 degrees CA aTDC. The double injection strategy shows improved engine performance at -15 degrees CA and -33 degrees CA aTDC, achieving a thermal efficiency of 48.02% and a better fuel economy of 169.61 g/kWh, compared to 47.26% and 172.33 g/kWh for single injection. It also reduces soot, carbon monoxide and greenhouse gas emissions by 28.57%, 26.61% and 0.20%, respectively, although NOx emissions slightly increase compared to single injection. The double injection strategy significantly reduces soot and NOx emissions, staying well below the Euro VI standard, proving its effectiveness at low loads without requiring engine modifications.

Rising global energy demand, coupled with concerns over climate change and the depletion of fossil fuels, has intensified interest in carbon-neutral combustion alternatives. E-diesel, produced by synthesizing green hydrogen with carbon dioxide captured from industrial emissions or directly from the atmosphere, represents a promising pathway for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It shows significant potential as a substitute for conventional diesel in compression ignition (CI) engines. This study experimentally investigates the spray and combustion characteristics of E-diesel under engine-relevant conditions. To support the development of a chemical kinetic mechanism and enable its application in fuel–engine optimization simulations, a surrogate fuel was formulated by blending selected alkanes to replicate the key physicochemical properties of E-diesel. Experiments were conducted in a constant-volume combustion chamber using multiple optical diagnostic techniques under varying ambient temperatures, injection pressures, and oxygen concentrations. These measurements enabled detailed characterization of spray morphology, flame structure, and in-flame soot formation. Conventional diesel fuel was also tested under identical conditions for comparison. The results demonstrate that the surrogate fuel successfully reproduces several physicochemical properties of E-diesel and exhibits similar spray and combustion behavior. Due to the absence of high-boiling aromatic and heavy hydrocarbon components, E-diesel exhibits a shorter liquid penetration length. Its higher reactivity leads to reduced ignition delay and shorter flame lift-off length compared to conventional diesel. Furthermore, in-flame soot formation is significantly lower, despite a relatively higher average equivalence ratio at the lift-off length. This reduction in soot formation is primarily attributed to the near-zero aromatic hydrocarbon content of E-diesel

Cavitation commonly occurs in fuel injector nozzles, yet the mechanism by which needle valve eccentricity affects in-nozzle string cavitation remains unclear. This study focuses on the development of string-cavitating flow fields and vortex structures influenced by needle valve eccentricity within the nozzle orifice. The Reynolds Stress Model, along with the Volume of Fluid method and the modified Zwart-Gerber-Belamri cavitation model, was employed to evaluate the effects of varying needle valve eccentric distances and orientations on internal flow dynamics. Increasing needle valve eccentricity results in a significantly asymmetric cavitation distribution within the nozzle, enhances vorticity in the main flow region, and strengthens cavitation-vortex interactions, thereby suppressing pressure oscillations. Needle valve eccentricity also significantly alters the intensity and frequency of phase transitions (i.e. fuel vaporization and condensation) within the nozzle orifice. Additionally, needle valve eccentricity promotes vortex instability and increases vortex breakup frequency, while reducing the nozzle flow coefficient by approximately 1-17% compared with the centrally symmetric reference geometry. Needle valve eccentricity fundamentally alters the internal cavitating flow, which can be detrimental to spray uniformity and which is likely to influence subsequent atomization and combustion processes. These findings lay a foundation for optimizing nozzle design to alleviate cavitation-induced flow instability and enhance spray performance.

The depletion of fossil fuels and increasing pollution necessitate the exploration of alternative, oxygenated fuels such as n-pentanol for internal combustion engines. n-Pentanol offers benefits such as high energy density, improved miscibility with diesel, and low emissions. This study aims to optimize 60% n-pentanol by volume as diesel fuel additive in engines operating under low load. Five advanced machine learning algorithms (random forest, multilayer perceptron neural network, extreme gradient boosting, k-nearest neighbors, and support vector machine) were employed in the analysis to predict engine combustion, performance, and emissions in real-time. The precision of each model was evaluated using the coefficient of determination, mean absolute error and root mean square error. These models assessed the impact of n-pentanol on engine performance at different intake pressures, temperatures and injection pressures, focusing on efficiency and emissions reduction. An intuitive graphical user interface was developed to integrate the models for real-time predictions of engine operation, enabling dynamic optimization of n-pentanol usage. Results highlight the potential of n-pentanol blends, achieving an indicated thermal efficiency of 47.68%, a 15.73% improvement in fuel economy, and significant emission reductions: NOx decreased by 98.76% and greenhouse gas by 29.53% compared to pure diesel. Furthermore, the high volume of n-pentanol additive successfully addressed the NOx and soot trade-off, achieving compliance with Euro VI emission standards. The provision of data-driven insights and a graphical user interface facilitates the practical implementation of this optimization strategy, paving the way for cleaner and more efficient operation of internal combustion engines.

Ammonia, a zero-carbon fuel, has attracted considerable attention due to its potential use in internal combustion engines. However, its unique physical and chemical properties present challenges to its use. Blending ammonia with dimethyl ether (DME) has been identified as a potential solution to improve its combustion characteristics. This study employs an integrated approach combining experimental and numerical simulation methods to address the unresolved issue of the spray and combustion characteristics of ammonia/dimethyl ether blended fuels under high-pressure direct injection conditions. A robust multiphase flow model was developed and validated to systematically investigate the spray atomization characteristics of the liquid ammonia/dimethyl ether blend. Under high-pressure direct injection, the blended fuel with dimethyl ether demonstrates a more significant flash boiling effect compared to pure ammonia. This result in reduced spray penetration and a smaller sauter mean diameter of 3.69 & micro;m. Furthermore, the droplet size distribution shifts towards smaller sizes, with a 15.3% decrease in the proportion of large droplets, indicating improved atomization efficiency. Ambient pressure and temperature significantly influence the atomization process. Increased ambient pressure enhances secondary atomization, resulting in smaller droplets with a sauter mean diameter of 3.08 & micro;m. Higher temperatures also improve spray characteristics, with the sauter mean diameter decreasing to 2.93 & micro;m at 600 K. This leads to increased droplet fragmentation and improved atomization performance. The results of this study offer significant contributions to the advancement of ammonia/ dimethyl ether blended fuels for high-pressure direct injection engines, fostering the creation of more effective and sustainable combustion systems.

Liquid ammonia is a promising carbon-free fuel, but its poor ignitability and strong phase-change tendency impose strict requirements on injection and mixture preparation. In high-pressure direct injection systems, transient two-phase flow inside the nozzle strongly influences primary breakup and spray formation, yet direct experimental evidence for liquid ammonia under pulsed operating conditions remains limited. In this study, high-speed visualization with a real-size transparent nozzle was used to investigate transient cavitating flow in a liquid-ammonia injector at injection pressures of 30-50 MPa and pulse widths of 2200-6200 mu s. The results show that injection pressure mainly governs needle opening and maximum lift, which increased from 0.094 mm at 30 MPa to 0.177 mm at 50 MPa under the short pulse-width condition. At low needle lift, severe inlet throttling induces strong and highly unsteady geometry-induced cavitation. When the needle lift approaches about 0.2 mm, a stable low-pressure vortex core forms in the valve seat accumulator chamber, promoting a transition to string cavitation with much higher temporal stability. Increasing pulse width has little effect on the initial needle motion, but prolongs the high-lift duration and allows the needle to reach 0.251 mm at 40 MPa and 0.343 mm at 50 MPa, thereby promoting quasi-steady string cavitation. This work provides real-size experimental evidence of transient cavitation evolution in a liquid-ammonia injector nozzle, extending previous studies focused mainly on external spray behavior or numerical simulation and offering support for model validation and injector design.

This study proposes a novel hybrid combustion strategy, turbulent jet ignition coupled with spray diffusion, to enable pure methanol compression ignition in a large-bore engine, thereby overcoming methanol's low cetane number barrier. A 3D computational model was developed for a 320 mm bore engine and validated against spray and combustion experiments. The model was then employed to systematically investigate the impact of methanol injection timing. The results reveal a characteristic three-stage heat release profile, which is mechanistically linked to pre-chamber jet ignition, main-chamber flame propagation, and spray diffusion combustion. Critically, retarding injection beyond -10 degrees CA ATDC was found to drastically reduce the heat release rate, prolong the combustion duration, degrade combustion efficiency, and cause a sharp rise in emissions of unburned methanol, HC, CO, and formaldehyde. An optimal injection timing of -10 degrees CA ATDC was identified, achieving a high indicated mean effective pressure of 2.71 MPa, an indicated thermal efficiency of 46.7 %, and near-zero emissions of unburned fuel and incomplete combustion products, while maintaining NOx below IMO Tier III limits. This work demonstrates that the jet ignition-spray diffusion hybrid mode is a viable and promising pathway to high-efficiency, high-power-density, and clean-burning full-methanol compression ignition engines.

This study measured the laminar burning velocity (LBV) of pure NH3 under varying conditions of temperature (298K–498K), pressure (1 bar–4 bar), and oxygen concentration (18%–45%) using the spherical flame method. Flame morphology implies an enhanced stability with increased equivalence ratio. A detailed NH3/O2/N2 combustion mechanism proposed in this study can accurately predict the measured LBVs, ignition delay times and intermediate components of NH3 under different conditions. The influence of oxygen concentration, temperature, and pressure on the LBV of NH3 was analyzed. The fictitious gas method indicates that thermal effects are the primary factor driving the increase in LBV at higher oxygen concentration. The LBV of NH3 showed a correlation with initial temperature and pressure, which diminished as oxygen concentration increased. Additionally, the nitrogen labeling method was employed to distinguish NO emissions at steady state originating from NH3 and N2. Elevated initial temperature reduce NO from NH3 while increasing NO from N2. ROP analysis indicates that HNO is the main precursor of NO from NH3, while NO from N2 is primarily formed via the oxidation of N2 by O and OH radicals and consumed through reduction by N radical.

This paper focuses on the numerical study on the phenomenon and mechanism of spin-to-orbital angular momentum conversion for the head-on collision between a spinning droplet and a non-spinning droplet of unequal sizes. The droplet deformation process was phenomenologically described, where the gas film suppresses the rotating flow inside the spinning droplet and, in turn, rotates the non-spinning droplet through its shearing effects. The gas film tends to be curved by the size disparity, leading to a more complex gas film flow. The hysteresis mechanism of spin-to-orbital angular momentum conversion was analyzed. The decrease in spin angular momentum and increase in orbital angular momentum have an upper limit as increasing the size ratio, which is attributed to the droplet deformation that is similar to a droplet impacting on a liquid film. In addition, a wider range of size ratio, Weber number, and droplet spin angular speed were discussed, where some numerical findings are significant to the angular momentum conversion coefficient modeling.

This study investigates the linear instability of a swirling annular liquid sheet subjected to gas flow oscillation, a configuration representative of pressure swirl atomizers operating under unsteady combustion conditions. Utilizing the Floquet theory and a potential flow assumption, the parametric instability of the liquid sheet is analyzed to elucidate the coupling mechanisms between liquid sheet swirling and unsteady aerodynamics. The results demonstrate that the subharmonic mode consistently exhibits higher growth rates than the harmonic mode and may therefore play a dominant role in the primary atomization process. The instability response proves highly sensitive to forcing characteristics: low-frequency oscillations facilitate sheet breakup by merging discrete unstable regions into a continuous spectrum, while high-amplitude forcing induces multiple independent local maxima. Furthermore, geometrical and physical parameters, such as thinner liquid sheets and higher gas densities, significantly enhance the sheet susceptibility to aerodynamic modulation. A key finding of this work is the distinct mode sensitivity introduced by liquid swirl. In contrast to non-swirling flows, where gas flow oscillation typically induces isolated high wave number unstable regions, the presence of swirl facilitates direct modulation of the primary dispersion curve. Specifically, the coupling of centrifugal forces and unsteady aerodynamic forcing preferentially amplifies the axisymmetric and second non-axisymmetric (n=2) modes, while the helical mode (n=1) remains relatively unchanged. The presence of swirl significantly enhances the responsiveness of the annular liquid sheet to airflow oscillation, accelerating disintegration under oscillating flow conditions.

Self-excited sweeping (SES) nozzles have attracted growing interest due to their ability to generate high-frequency oscillating jets. While prior studies have clarified their flow dynamics and atomization under atmospheric conditions, their behavior in crossflow-relevant to aero-engine and afterburner combustors-remains insufficiently understood. This study experimentally investigates the spray characteristics of a SES nozzle operating in a high-speed crossflow, with an emphasis on the influence of injection pressure. A two-dimensional phase Doppler particle analyzer (PDPA) was employed to measure droplet size and velocity distributions at multiple downstream locations. The results show that the spray morphology evolves markedly downstream. Droplet sizes decrease significantly up to the midstream region, while axial velocities increase due to momentum exchange with the crossflow. The sweeping motion of the SES nozzle induces a dominant oscillation frequency of spray characteristics. The amplitude of these oscillations varies spatially, reflecting the combined effects of sweeping dynamics and aerodynamic damping. Compared to the circular nozzle, the SES nozzle exhibits distinct spray characteristics. The circular nozzle demonstrates greater penetration, but the SES nozzle provides wider lateral coverage, a larger overall spray area, and smaller droplets. Injection pressure is found to be a critical parameter governing spray penetration, coverage, droplet size, and oscillatory behavior. Increasing pressure enhances penetration but results in a trade-off with spanwise coverage. At higher pressures, stronger atomization reduces both Sauter mean diameter and oscillation amplitudes. Overall, this work provides insights into the temporal-spatial spray characteristics of SES nozzles in crossflow environments, offering guidance for their application in aerospace propulsion systems.