Geological materials are often seen as the antithesis of soft; rocks are hard. However, during the formation of minerals and rocks, all the systems we shall discuss, indeed geological materials in general, pass through a stage where they are soft. This occurs either because they form at a high temperature - igneous or metamorphic rock - or because they form at a lower temperature but in the presence of water - sedimentary rock. For this reason it is useful to introduce soft-matter concepts into the geological domain. There is a universality in the diverse instances of geological patterns that may be appreciated by looking at the common aspect in their formation of having passed through a stage as soft matter.
The Bou Skour copper deposit is located in the eastern part of the Moroccan Anti-Atlas, approximately 56km east of Ouarzazate city, exhibits geological, textural and mineralogical characteristics that attest to a complex development history. Copper mineralization is hosted mainly in Lower Ediacaran andesite and granodiorite. The deposit resulted from at least two superimposed mineralizing events: i) a first, early event produced porphyrytype mineralization with chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite and sphalerite. ii) A second, later event was responsible for the development of vein-type mineralization, mainly materialized by three veins: Filon Principal, Filon 1 and Filon 2. The mineralization is predominantly composed of pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tennantite, aikinite and wittichenite. Hydrothermal fluids have altered the granodiorite and andesite in several phases, forming potassic (K-feldspar + biotite), phyllic (chlorite), argillic (kaolinite), and propylitic (epidote) mineral zones. A portion of the silver in the Bou Skour deposit occurs in native form, while another fraction is present as trace elements within copper sulfides, primarily bornite and chalcocite. The ore-associated calcite has delta 13C values range of - 9 to +2.9 %o and delta 18O values of +19.5 to +22 %o. These isotopic signatures are consistent with interaction of a crust sourced fluid and surrounding rocks, or with meteoric waters enriched in organic matter. In addition, sulfur isotopic signatures (delta 34S) measured in bornite and chalcopyrite are relatively homogeneous, with values of between -7.86 andto -4.14 %o, indicating a purely magmatic origin for sulfur. Fluid inclusion study of porphyry-type mineralization reveals formation by paleo magmatic-hydrothermal circulation involving two distinct fluid types: (1) a hot magmatic fluid that underwent phase separation through boiling, generating both a hypersaline liquid (44.78-61.64 wt% NaCl equiv.) and a vapor phase (5.86-7.86 wt% NaCl equiv.), exhibiting comparable homogenization temperatures (450-500 degrees C); and (2) a second aqueous fluid characterized by moderate temperatures (237.9-452 degrees C) and low to intermediate salinity (19.4-38.78 wt% NaCl equiv.), indicating mixing with external fluids. The vein-type mineralization which represents hydrothermal conduits exhibiting moderately low temperatures (180-310 degrees C) and moderate salinities (14.25-28.66 wt% NaCl equiv.) records the late-stage evolution of the hydrothermal system associated with Hercynian tectonic activity.
The excavations at the Tartessian monumental building of Casas del Turunuelo (Guarena, Spain) uncovered the remains of a special event that took place before the intentional closure and burial of the building under an earth mound at the end of the 5th century BCE. During this event, a banquet was held inside the building, and at least 52 animals-mainly equids-were sacrificed in different stages in the courtyard. Sequential multi-isotopic analyses (87Sr/86Sr, delta 13C, and delta 18O) from enamel carbonate from a total of 23 teeth were analysed to assess the geographic origin and potential mobility patterns of 4 cattle, 3 sheep and 12 equid individuals recovered both from the courtyard and from the interior of the building. The strontium results reveal a diversity of origins and movement behaviours: some individuals showed intratooth isotopic variability, while others display very stable 87Sr/86Sr ratios throughout enamel mineralisation. Carbon and oxygen data suggest that horses were supplemented with fodder whenever necessary and had access to a stable water source to maximise their well-being during growth time. In contrast, caprines (sheep/goats) mainly relied on locally available pastures and water. This constitutes the most comprehensive study of equid provenance and diet in the south-western Iberia to date, and provides the first isotopic evidence for caprine mobility in Spanish Extremadura. Finally, the results provide new insights into animal management strategies and the cultural significance of Tartessian sacrificial rites.
The Western Mediterranean is a climatic hotspot with strong variability in cloud processes. However, Cloudnet sites there are scarce compared to northern Europe. This study presents for the first time a five-year cloud statistical analysis at the AGORA ACTRIS-CCRES station in Granada (Spain), using 94 GHz Doppler radar, microwave radiometer, and ceilometer data. Analyses focus on single-layer clouds and their interannual variability in macrophysical and microphysical properties. A new cluster-based algorithm (CBA) is introduced for cloud classification, reducing spurious correlations found in earlier methods. The CBA shows single-layer cloud minima in summer, with annual occurrences of 5.0 % for ice, 3.6 % for precipitating ice, 3.4 % for mixed-phase, 3.2 % for precipitating mixed-phase, and 1.4 % (1.2 %) for liquid (precipitating liquid) clouds. Liquid clouds are observed at 1–2 km, thin (∼ 200–300 m), with a droplet radius of 5 µm and liquid water paths of 12 g m−2. Mixed-phase clouds occur at 5–6 km, nearly 1 km thicker, with larger droplets (10.8 µm) and ice water paths of 3.5 g m−2. Ice clouds dominate at 7–8 km, the thickest type, with higher ice water paths (8.5 g m−2) but smaller particles (∼ 39 µm) than mixed-phase (∼ 45 µm). Across all phases, precipitating clouds have lower bases, greater thickness, and higher water content and particle sizes than non-precipitating clouds. These results provide benchmark data for satellite and model evaluation. The algorithm can be applied to other Cloudnet sites, supporting consistent European cloud statistics.
This study explores the ecology of the benthic foraminifera fauna and reconstructs bottom water oxygenation, organic matter fluxes, and Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW) dynamics in the Gulf of Cadiz during the Early to Middle Pleistocene Transition (EMPT) interval of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 28 to MIS 19 (1014–761 ka) using high-resolution multiproxy data from IODP Site U1387. Along with benthic foraminifera assemblages, we integrate stable isotopes (δ18O and δ13C), organic carbon, alkenone concentrations, and geochemical and sedimentological proxies (Zr/Al ratio, grain size) to identify environmental drivers across glacial–interglacial cycles and millennial-scale events. Furthermore, the absolute abundance of Planulina ariminensis is applied as a proxy for bottom current strength. Principal component analysis confirms assemblage responses to variations in organic matter quality and oxygenation. Periods of intensified MOW during stadial climate stages correspond to enhanced bottom water ventilation, reflected in higher abundances of epifaunal and porcelaneous taxa, higher diversity, and increased dissolved oxygen, with the exception of the late MIS 22. Intervals of reduced ventilation (e.g. interglacial MIS 27, MIS 25e, MIS 21g, MIS 19c) coincide with higher total alkenone concentrations, potentially contributing to low oxygen conditions and increased proportions of infaunal taxa. Our results reveal that bottom water dynamics at Site U1387 were controlled by local oceanographic processes (e.g. coastal upwelling, river discharge, water column stratification) rather than by global ice volume changes only. These findings highlight the importance of understanding regional oceanographic variations during the EMPT and emphasize the value of combining food supply, oxygenation, and bottom current proxies to interpret benthic foraminifera ecological changes.
