This comprehensive review presents a thorough examination of recent advances in nanoemulsion (NE) green technology, focusing on biomass-assisted synthesis, characterization, and the diverse biomedical implications of these nanoscale emulsions. NEs, characterized by their minute droplet sizes and kinetic stability, have garnered considerable attention due to their potential applications across various biomedical fields. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of state-of-the-art synthesis methods, including mini-emulsion polymerization, NE–solvent evaporation, spontaneous emulsification, sol–gel techniques, and innovative strategies for producing complex multicomponent materials. Emphasis is placed on the evolution of synthetic approaches, offering insights into the current landscape of NE production. In exploring the biomedical applications, the study categorizes nanocarriers formed within NEs, distinguishing between polymeric, inorganic, and hybrid nanocarriers based on their chemical composition. Noteworthy advancements in synthetic strategies are outlined for each category, showcasing the dynamic nature of NEs technology. A key highlight is the discussion of emerging trends in biomedical applications, spanning medicine, food, agriculture, cosmetics, and environmental science. Specific attention is given to the role of NEs in nanofiltration, elucidating their effectiveness in removing diverse pharmaceuticals through polyamide nano-filters. Moreover, the manuscript delves into the pivotal role of NEs in bioremediation, addressing hazardous substances such as PFASs through adsorption, photo-degradation/defluorination, and other innovative mechanisms. This review aims to provide a contemporary overview of green NE technologies, offering valuable insights for researchers, scientists, and practitioners in nanotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and biomedical sciences.
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a complex human herpesvirus characterized by a protein core, a 162-capsomer nucleocapsid, and a glycoprotein-spiked envelope, which facilitates its transmission through bodily fluids. The virus primarily targets B cells and oropharyngeal epithelial cells, establishing infection through viral gp350/220 binds to the host CD21/CR2 receptor, followed by gp42 interacting with HLA class II molecules to trigger endocytosis. Once infection is established, EBV utilizes two main types of encoded microRNAs to regulate the host environment. The BHRF1 miRNAs are expressed early to promote rapid cell proliferation and prevent B-lymphocyte apoptosis by targeting pro-apoptotic proteins. Meanwhile, the BART miRNA cluster, including miR-BART1, miR-BART2, miR-BART3, miR-BART4, miR-BART7, miR-BART8, and miR-BART22, which are robustly expressed in epithelial malignancies like nasopharyngeal and gastric carcinomas, has been found to significantly suppress caspase-3, a central executioner of apoptosis and target host immune mediators like CXCL-11 to stifle antiviral responses. Moreover, Min et al. discovered that miR-BART1-3p inhibited the expression of Disabled homolog 2 (DAB2), a tumor suppressor gene linked to apoptosis, in EBVaGC cells, allowing them to evade programmed cell death. EBV’s ability to cycle between B cells and epithelial cells, along with its association with the modulation of host cell processes and immune responses, highlights the mechanisms by which EBV establishes infection and contributes to oncogenesis.
5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a widely used anticancer drug; however, its clinical application is limited by severe adverse effects, particularly cardiotoxicity. This study investigated the cardioprotective potential of epigallocatechin gallat–mediated selenium nanoparticles (EGCG-SeNPs) against 5-FU–induced cardiac injury in rats and explored the underlying mechanisms, with a specific focus on comparing the efficacy of the combined therapy versus EGCG or selenium monotherapy. In silico molecular docking was performed to evaluate the interaction of EGCG with inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Thirty-five male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to five groups: control, 5-FU, Na₂SeO₃ 5-FU, EGCG 5-FU, and EGCG-SeNPs 5-FU. Cardiotoxicity was induced by intraperitoneal administration of 5-FU (30 mg/kg) for five consecutive days, while treatments were administered orally for 21 days. Cardiac injury biomarkers, oxidative stress parameters, inflammatory mediators, and apoptotic markers were evaluated using biochemical assays, ELISA, qRT-PCR, immunohistochemistry for Nrf2/Keap1 signaling, and histopathological examination. 5-FU induced significant cardiotoxicity, evidenced by elevated CK-MB, LDH, and troponin levels; increased lipid peroxidation; depletion of antioxidant defenses; activation of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and NF-kB); suppression of IL-10; and enhanced apoptosis, accompanied by myocardial histopathological damage and reduced Nrf2 immunoreactivity. Treatment with EGCG or sodium selenite attenuated these alterations, while EGCG-SeNPs exerted cardioprotective effects, restoring redox balance, suppressing inflammation and apoptosis, modulating Nrf2/Keap1 signaling, and preserving myocardial architecture. EGCG-mediated selenium nanoparticles exhibit potent cardioprotective effects through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic mechanisms. These findings highlight the therapeutic potential of EGCG-SeNPs as a promising cardioprotective strategy during 5-FU chemotherapy.
The continuous release of cationic dyes such as methylene blue (MB) into aquatic systems poses serious environmental concerns due to their chemical stability, persistence, and potential toxicity. In this study, a novel ternary hybrid adsorbent (CS-UiO66-NH2/TpPa-1) was rationally engineered by integrating chitosan with a metal–organic framework (UiO-66-NH2) and a covalent organic framework (TpPa-1) to enhance adsorption performance through synergistic effects. The composite structure combines the functional groups of chitosan, the high surface area and stability of the MOF, and the π-conjugated framework of the COF, enabling multiple interaction pathways. Comprehensive characterization (FTIR, XRD, SEM, BET, TGA, XRF, and zeta potential) confirmed successful hybridisation and the formation of a hierarchical micro–mesoporous architecture with pH-responsive surface charge (pHPZC ≈ 6.4). Batch adsorption studies demonstrated that MB removal is strongly influenced by pH, contact time, initial concentration, and temperature, with optimal performance at pH 7 and 25 °C. The composite achieved a high adsorption capacity of 476.64 ± 3.6 mg g⁻1 and a removal efficiency of 98.34 ± 0.7
This study provides a detailed spatiotemporal assessment of atmospheric pollutants and land surface temperature (LST) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, from 2019 to 2024, utilizing Google Earth Engine (GEE) to process Sentinel-5P TROPOMI and MODIS MOD11A2 satellite datasets. The analyzed pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO₂), ultraviolet aerosol index (UVAI), methane (CH₄), carbon monoxide (CO), formaldehyde (HCHO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂). Over the study period, SO₂ concentrations decreased from 0.000136 mol/m² in 2019 to 0.000078 mol/m² in 2024, while NO₂ declined from 0.00028 mol/m² to 0.00019 mol/m². UVAI reached a maximum of 1.6 in 2021, reflecting heightened dust activity, before stabilizing at 0.7. CO levels slightly decreased from 0.041 mol/m² to 0.037 mol/m², whereas CH₄ showed a small increase from 1843 ppb to 1855 ppb. O₃ remained relatively stable with an average of 0.17 mol/m², and HCHO exhibited minor variability, peaking at 0.000041 mol/m² in 2021. The mean LST rose from 42.45 °C to 44.31 °C, indicating an intensification of the urban heat effect. Correlation analysis revealed a very strong association between LST and CH₄ (r = 0.881), as well as strong correlations with HCHO (r = 0.709). Moderate correlations were observed with CO (r = 0.602) and NO₂ (r = 0.558). UVAI and SO₂ showed weaker relationships (r = 0.402 and 0.321, respectively). Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) revealed significant spatial heterogeneity, with local R² values reaching up to 0.7728 for HCHO–LST relationships in densely built-up areas, and 0.725 for CO–LST in industrial zones, indicating pollutant–temperature linkages are strongest in urbanized and high-emission districts. They present the inter-related dynamics of the thermal and atmospheric conditions of an arid megacity and provide the required data for air quality policy-making and sustainable urbanization planning.
