Based on the assumption that a strong norm of moderation is socialized in Chinese respondents, rates of midpoint responding to personality items were examined. Since self-report on personality characteristics induces self-awareness, it was predicted that high Public Self-Consciousness will produce higher rates of moderate responding than low public self-consciousness. High public self-consciousness results in an individual being concerned about how he or she appears to others and the moderation norm of Chinese will be more salient for these respondents. The self-ratings on personality items for 181 employment training volunteers in Hong Kong substantiated the prediction. The results also were in line with previous findings that high private self-consciousness leads to greater response consistency over a series of test items. The implications and limitations of the results are discussed.
This paper aimed to determine the criteria participants use to make decisions about scarce medical resources (allocation to use a kidney machine). It varied information about patients on 4 factors (sex, smoking, employment status, community service). It also set out to see if decisions made in groups differed from aggregated decisions of those made alone. In the first study, participants completed a simple questionnaire requiring them to rank-order sixteen hypothetical patients. In the second study, a group discussion (in groups of three participants) preceded the group putting an agreed rating on the identical questionnaire. Participants favoured patients who were employed, non-smokers and participated in community service. This suggests that participants adopted a utilitarian moral ideology. Participants' smoking habits interacted with the hypothetical patients' smoking habits, indicating in-group favouritism. In the second study it was found that when the decision was made in a group of three it amplifies the decision made by an individual. In this sense there was clear evidence of group polarization.
This study tested the hypothesis that an inverse relation between optimism and subsequent stress would be partially due to levels of procrastination. One hundred seventy-three students from a liberal arts university in Northern Wisconsin completed self-report measures of trait optimism, procrastination, and perceived stress, and returned six weeks later to complete the same measures. Results of an initial path analysis indicated that although Time 1 optimism contributed to the prediction of both Time 1 procrastination and Time 2 stress, level of procrastination at Time 1 did not significantly predict Time 2 stress. However, a second path analysis found that procrastination at Time 2 did partially mediate the relationship between Time 1 optimism and Time 2 stress. Taken together, these findings provide additional support for optimism as an important predictor of subsequent adjustment and suggest that, although procrastination is entwined with stress, it does not necessarily lead to increases in stress at a later point.
We empirically test Shields' (1987; Geer & Shields, 1996) proposal that women face a double-bind with respect to emotional expression, such that both expressiveness and emotional control in women are negatively evaluated. Participants assessed the appropriateness and the degree of overreaction of behaviors described in a series of scenarios. These scenarios depicted over- and underreactions to happy, sad, and angry scenarios in either interpersonal or achievement contexts by either male or female targets. Women's over- and underreactions to happy and sad events were judged as less appropriate than men's, whereas men's over- and underreactions to angry events were judged as less appropriate than women's. Furthermore, women's overreactions were judged as more of an overreaction, and underreactions judged as more of an underreaction, compared to men's reactions for sad scenarios. Men's overreactions were judged as more of an overreaction, and underreaction judged as more of an underreaction, compared to women's reactions for angry scenarios. This suggests that stereotypes of emotionality may underlie the appropriateness judgments. Implications of the double-bind for both women and men are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to create an instrument to measure four social needs; achievement, affiliation, autonomy, and dominance. Although an instrument exists (i.e., the Manifest Needs Questionnaire (MNQ), Steers & Braunstein, 1976), numerous studies have reported problematic internal consistency of the scale scores. A 60-item instrument, consisting of the 20 MNQ items and 40 new items, was administered to 476 undergraduates. Based on the factor analysis results, the 20-item Needs Assessment Questionnaire (NAQ) was created. Internal consistency estimates were higher for the NAQ scores than for the MNQ scores in the creation and confirmation samples. Evidence of the scale's test-retest reliability is provided. Additional data collected from 203 undergraduates and 401 workers provided support for the validity of the scale for these populations.
This study assessed various components of Dweck's model of achievement motivation as applied to college students. Our major goals were to (a) examine both the separate and combined effects of learning and performance orientations on achievement, (b) clarify the role of performance orientation in academic achievement, and (c) extend analyses to include older, nontraditional students. We compared four goal orientation groups (high learning, high performance, mixed goals, and uncommitted) on a variety of measures related to Dweck's model: beliefs about the flexibility of intelligence, academic performance (GPA), failure attributions, and optimism. Beliefs about intelligence and optimism related to goal orientations, but not to grades. Both learning and performance orientations related positively to grades, but students with stronger performance orientations were more likely to use a negative explanatory style which was related to lower grades. Older, nontraditional students had a significantly higher learning orientation, lower performance orientation, and higher GPAs than traditional students. These two groups did not differ in their beliefs about intelligence, use of negative failure attributions, or general optimism (although optimism was positively correlated with age). Implications for both future research and possible academic intervention strategies are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a health-based versus appearance-based persuasive message on exercise attitudes and intentions and to determine if these effects were moderated by the personality trait of self-monitoring. Two hundred and seven undergraduate university students completed the self-monitoring questionnaire and read persuasive messages of either physical appearance advantages or health benefits of exercise before completing measures of exercise attitude and intention. The results of the 2 (self-monitoring) x 2 (message-type) MANOVA on the dependent variables of attitude and intention was significant (p<.05). Post-hoe analysis found that low self-monitoring individuals responded with significantly stronger attitude scores from exposure to the health-based message than the appearance-based message. Further, the health-based message produced significantly higher attitude scores among low self-monitors than high self-monitors. These results suggest interventions utilizing exercise motives may require consideration of a participant's propensity to self-monitor.
One objective of the present study was to determine if job stress was related to negative affect and job satisfaction. Another objective was to examine if social support from one's supervisor could reduce the impacts of job stress. A related objective was to document any negative impacts from receipt of support. One hundred and eight Hong Kong kindergarten principals responded to a questionnaire containing the variables of interest. The results showed that the principals found their work to be moderately stressful,that informational support could buffer the impacts of job stress, and that there were only weak adverse effects associated with receipt of support.
Many students graduate from college each year and must decide to either apply for a job or apply to graduate school. Ajsen's theory of planned behavior was used to predict students' intentions and application behaviors from their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Sixty upper division students reported intentions to apply to graduate school. The data supported Ajzen's theory. The single best predictor of intentions was the students' attitudes about graduate school and how graduate school would be helpful for their future careers. Perceived behavioral control was also a significant predictor of actual application behaviors.
Loneliness is a pervasive experience, which every person has experienced. It is a subjective experience, which is influenced by one's personality and situational variables. The present study examined the influence of age and gender on the perceived causes of loneliness. Seven hundred and eleven participants from all walks of life volunteered to answer an 82-item yes/no questionnaire, reflecting on their loneliness experiences and causes. Four age groups were compared: youth (13-18 years old), young adults( 19-30 years old), adults (31-58 years old) and seniors (60-80 years old). Within and between gender comparisons were done. Results indicated that the causes of loneliness are perceived differently depending on one's age and gender. Young adults had the highest mean scores on all subscales, while seniors scored the lowest. A gender main effect was also found with women scoring higher in loneliness.
Using a longitudinal research design, this study examines the job searching process of a sample of laid off job seekers. Specifically, this study examines the impact of the growth rate of a job seeker's prior industry on the status and industry affiliation of job search contacts. In addition, this study examines the influence of the use of personal contacts on important job search outcomes, including salary and status following re-employment. In doing so, this study contributes to the job search literature by considering the interplay of macro- and micro-level factors and provides contemporary insights into the job search process in the context of a volatile marketplace.
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) has been used to measure two dominant emotional dimensions of affect. A construct validation study was conducted to assess the relationship between the PANAS scales and five criterion measures related to negative mood. These criterion measures were taken from Goldberg's International Personality Item Pool and consisted of measures of calmness, temperance, two scales of tolerance, and emotionality. A sample of 69 students completed the PANAS and five criterion variables that assess various aspects of negative affect. The results showed strong support for the validity of the Negative Affect scale.
An initial study was conducted to test postulates of Higgins' (1987) self-discrepancy theory relating to the differential association of specific types of "self-guides" to specific types of emotional distress. The Selves Questionnaire was used to measure discrepancies between the actual self and the ideal self and ought self as projected to significant others. In line with Higgins' theory, it was predicted that persons possessing higher magnitudes of Actual-Ideal discrepancy would report more dejection-related problems than those possessing higher magnitudes of Actual-Ought discrepancy, whereas the reverse would be true when measuring anxiety-related problems. When no differential relationship was demonstrated, a new instrument (an objective list of adjectives) was generated to test the same postulates. Again, although both types of discrepancies were related to general pathology, no unique relationships were demonstrated. These results were discussed in terms of adequacy of the measurements used and of the theory itself.
This paper explores the possibility that journals in the management area of the social sciences may not reflect the same degree of publication bias that has typically been found in other areas. Data from structured interviews and quantitative comparisons indicated that top tier journals in the management area have lower acceptance rates than our comparison group, generally require a greater number of reviewers than the comparison group, publish a higher percentage of articles by authors affiliated with the schools of the editors than would be expected by chance, and there are significant differences in the publication rates for various disciplines within the management area that are associated with the disciplines of the editors. It is concluded that the management area is not immune from bias. It is suggested that continued research of this nature can be an important source of information for both contributors and editors enabling them to become aware of and manage the types of biases to which editors are most susceptible.
Because of the increased competition and anxiety associated with securing a clinical internship site placement, this study examined internship-related beliefs and perceptions of internship applicants. Academic training directors were also asked to indicate the degree to which they perceived their internship applicants to hold these beliefs. Significant differences were found between internship applicants and academic training directors by total score and on eight of the nine internship belief domains. Academic training directors attributed more unrealistic internship beliefs to their students than students actually endorsed. In addition, internship applicants reported many fears and stressors related to the internship selection process. Implications of the findings are discussed.
A model showed that grades alone are the strongest influence on academic procrastination in both Math and English for adolescent boys and girls (n = 192 boys; n = 188 adolescent girls). Students who procrastinate in either Math or English show significantly lower self-esteem. Mediated by self-esteem, depression contributes to girls' academic procrastination in English when verbal and general self-esteem are low. For boys, however, academic procrastination in Math results from low Math grades whereas high Math grades lead to depression.
A study was conducted to examine the effects of information valence and extremity on information search during impression formation. One hundred and twenty undergraduates (half men, half women) formed a likability impression of a target person by searching appearance and trait information that varied in valence and extremity. Searches were shorter with negative vs positive information (negativity effect) and with extreme vs more neutral information (polarity effect). A participant sex x valence x extremity interaction indicated that men's information searches displayed the negativity effect only with extreme information, whereas women's searches displayed the effect regardless of information extremity. Results were discussed in terms of a risk-avoidance impression formation strategy.
Preadolescents are spending more money on consumer goods than any other time in history. Although the interest in the adolescent (children aged 13-18) market has stimulated much research, little attention has focused on the years of preadolescence, ages 8-12. During this period children begin making product decisions and building a foundation of product knowledge. Information about the preadolescent child and the important role that conformity to parents and peers plays in apparel purchasing is necessary for researchers and educators to understand how these consumers are socialized. The purpose of this research is to examine the extent to which conformity motivators influence shopping behavior among preadolescents, especially with regard to clothing purchase criteria and shopping independence. Overall, this research found that preadolescents are exposed to and influenced by the behaviors and opinions of others, often using clothing to conform to peer groups as early as age 8. Analysis also indicates that as preadolescents age, both normative and informational conformity motivation increase in apparel purchase decisions. These conformity factors influence how children shop, who they shop with, and what they purchase.
In a between-subjects design, predictions about the O.J. Simpson verdict made one hour before the not-guilty verdict was announced were compared to predictions as recalled 6 days or 1 year later. There was a hindsight bias in that more participants recalled correctly predicting the acquittal than actually had. Moreover, the magnitude of the hindsight bias increased in the year following the verdict, suggesting that the perceived inevitability of Simpson's acquittal continued to increase. Predicted verdicts were unrelated to personal opinions about Simpson's guilt. Confidence was greater in predictions or postdictions of acquittal and for postdictions that were made after the verdict.
