Natural disasters present a significant challenge to engaged theology, particularly following the decline of traditional explanations that relied on the model of divine punishment. The ongoing occurrence of such catastrophes has become a scandal and is frequently used as a critique of divine providence and goodness. In response, theology has moved beyond earlier models to develop more nuanced answers, drawing on alternative frameworks that offer greater flexibility and depth, after considering merits and flaws of available theodicies. This article reviews contemporary theological approaches to the problem of natural disasters and explores new opportunities provided by research on the function of religion, religious coping mechanisms, and the processes of belief.
When religion and science lose their cultural significance, efficacy or attractivity in explaining the tragedy of natural disasters, an alternative proposal arises, that of conspiracy theories. This article seeks to interpret the contemporary popularity of conspiracy thinking as a kind of alternative theodicy and a serious challenge for Christian theology. For this purpose, the article presents an overview of current discussions regarding the relation between religion and conspiracy theories, with particular emphasis on the theological dimension of the problem. An examination of affinities and differences between science, religious explanation and conspiracy mentality helps to better understand the roots and main features of conspiracism in the contemporary world. It also allows us to revisit an old accusation that finds traditional religion culpable of susceptibility to conspiratorial thinking. This view can be contrasted with another perspectives which links the culture of conspiracy with new and esoteric spiritual movements or with modern rationalism or postmodern culture of suspicion. All these considerations show the limitations of simplified dialectics of religion and rationality and highlight some essential characteristics of a theological reflection on natural disasters and theodicy. The issues discussed bring up some ideas regarding the credibility of Christianity and point to the possible contribution of theology in the current discussion on conspiracism.
This paper revisits our understanding of natural evil and its related defences in the light of relatively new evidence in Complex Systems Science and Science and Technology Studies.Complex Systems Science shows unpredictability is a necessary feature of a universe open to innovation and the emergence of life and consciousness. This casts the Free Process, Natural Order, and Process Defences in a fresh light: God created a truly free cosmos, governed by dependable laws that, however, foster novelty and growth, and natural evil is a necessary by‑product of a living, adaptive creation.In addition, overcoming natural evil has been the key force in developing Science and Technology. Understanding this strengthens the Better Goods and Soul-making Defences by showing that hardship fuels our drive for insight and creating supportive communities.These insights present evil not as a punishment or an anomaly but as an intrinsic component of a dynamic creation that invites both divine freedom and human responsibility.
Regarding animal suffering —a theological problem that relatively recent developments intensify—, I propose two points. (1) For human holiness to be able to emerge, we humans must possess a double inheritance. On the one hand, in our immediate evolutionary past we acquired two immensely adaptive capacities –firstly, the ability to grasp others’ mental contents, and, later, the self-directed speech, which enhances the self-control that had previously emerged at protecting and improving one’s own reputation, i.e., one’s own social interests. On the other hand, we inherit from an enormously long evolutionary process the pleasure–pain pair. This pair, which serves as a guide for behavior, is essential for both animals and humans; yet at times it obscures the knowledge that we, unlike non-human animals, possess of another person’s mental contents. Thus, a conflict arises between pursuing my physical and social interests, prompted by my pleasure/pain, or, by contrast, recognizing that the needs of another person are also important. Consequently, since this conflict makes human holiness possible, we can say that the progressive evolution of animal suffering was one of the causes that made human holiness possible. (2) The horrendous nature of human suffering need not be attributed to the suffering of animals. In moments of pain or danger, animals focus solely on the immediate future as framed by their goal of escaping. This is the only adaptive animal behavior in such situations. By contrast, humans additionally deploy their capacity to evoke past experiences, non-immediate futures, or even states they have already realized are impossible to attain, all of which can at times be useful in the attempt to creatively find a way to escape, but, when they are not, greatly amplify pain.
La pasión y muerte de Jesucristo constituyen un acontecimiento central de la fe cristiana y, al mismo tiempo, un hecho histórico susceptible de análisis médico y forense. El presente artículo propone una lectura integrada que articula la fisiopatología del sufrimiento extremo, la medicina forense de la crucifixión romana y la reflexión teológica, tomando como eje hermenéutico el Evangelio de Juan. A partir del análisis de la flagelación, la crucifixión y la herida del costado, se examinan los principales mecanismos fisiopatológicos implicados en la muerte de Jesús: shock hipovolémico, insuficiencia respiratoria, colapso metabólico, lesión pulmonar y posible cardiopatía de estrés inducida por una descarga catecolaminérgica extrema. Estos datos se ponen en diálogo con la literatura médico-forense contemporánea y con los hallazgos procedentes del estudio de la Síndone de Turín y del Sudario de Oviedo, cuya coherencia con los relatos evangélicos ha sido ampliamente discutida en el ámbito científico. Finalmente, el trabajo ofrece una reflexión teológica y antropológica sobre el sufrimiento corporal de Cristo, mostrando cómo la vulnerabilidad extrema del cuerpo crucificado no es un mero dato biológico, sino el lugar teológico donde se revela el sentido redentor del sufrimiento humano. De este modo, el artículo pretende contribuir al diálogo entre ciencia y fe, mostrando la fecundidad de una aproximación interdisciplinar rigurosa y respetuosa de los distintos niveles de conocimiento.
Research across cognitive science, psychology of religion, linguistics, philosophy, and anthropology emphasizes the intertwined concepts mind and soul in shaping individuals’ perceptions. Both mind and soul significantly impact human intuitions, incorporating psychological, cognitive, religious, moral, and emotional dimensions. Correcting traditional dualistic perspectives on the mind-body relationship, recent studies advocate for a tripartite model (body, mind, and soul) to offer a holistic and nuanced comprehension of human cognition. Our investigation, spanning Catholic Poland (n = 225), Orthodox Ukraine (n = 272), and Islamic Kazakhstan (n = 198), validates the intuitive association of the soul beyond the mind. The results suggest that the soul operates independently of the mind, reflecting deep cultural and religious integration into human cognition. The ethical implications of distinguishing the soul from the mind are evident in participants’ moral dilemma judgments. This research advances cross-cultural comprehension of cultural influences on mental concept development in social contexts.
Debates on AI primarily focus on its moral implications and capacity to simulate religious experiences. However, an analysis of pilgrimage offers a unique perspective on broader transformations in religious practice, ranging from traditional spiritual journeys to modern, technology-assisted routes organized by travel agencies. Equipped with technological conveniences, emphasize efficiency and participant satisfaction, raising theological questions about the essence of pilgrimage itself. Used thomistic structure of argumentation (objections, counterarguments, and response) to examine three key issues: (1) whether AI can participate in a pilgrimage in a spiritual sense, (2) whether technological elimination of hardship diminishes the transformative potential of pilgrimage, and (3) whether cyberpilgrimage constitutes a legitimate alternative to physical pilgrimage. Drawing on classical metaphysics and contemporary AI research, the study argues that AI, lacking a rational soul, free will, and an intrinsic orientation toward transcendence, cannot be considered homo viator. Furthermore, the removal of physical hardship may undermine the ascetic and transformative dimensions of pilgrimage. The analysis of cyberpilgrimage suggests that, while psychologically engaging, virtual experiences do not replace the sacramental and embodied nature of spiritual journeys. This study contributes to the discourse on spirituality in the digital age, proposing a balanced approach that reconciles tradition with technological advancements while reaffirming the relevance of Thomistic anthropology in addressing contemporary challenges.
The article explores and critically reexamines the popular notion that biological evolution leaves little room for metaphysical freedom and free will. It guides the reader through a selection of emerging paradigms in evolutionary and theoretical biology, including the theories of autocatalysis, autopoiesis, epigenetics, and systems ecology, moving towards biosemiotics as its main focus. Special attention is given to the role of the chance-necessity interplay, the (physical) laws of nature, and the alleged directionality of evolution, as well as to the role and the scope of natural selection. The goal is to show how non-classical biology – and especially the emerging field of biosemiotics – can contribute to a better understanding of freedom as enhanced by, harnessed by, or even intrinsic to biological evolution. In doing so, the article also highlights the insights biosemiotics offers for broader engagement between theological methodology and the natural sciences (and vice versa). First, the classical Neo-Darwinian account of chance and necessity is contrasted with alternative approaches. The article then briefly presents key features of the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis (EES) and the organismal approach in biology, focusing on the concept of biological autonomy. Finally, it argues for the novelty of the biosemiotic paradigm in accommodating the notions of freedom, agency, and choice, and in methodologically engaging other disciplines, including theology. The conclusion points to possible implications for fundamental theological ethics and anthropology, as well as directions for future research in the field of science and theology.
Traditional Sunni commentaries of verses 33: 72, 6: 38, 24: 41, and 2: 30 of the Qur'an make it clear that Sunni exegetes endorsed the belief that creatures, imbued with consciousness, who were subject to moral law, and similar to humans, existed long before the creation of Adam. This would seem to allow creationism, human exceptionalism, and Adamic exceptionalism. However, traditional Sunni scholars dissociate the existence of creatures before and with Adam from he and his early progeny interbreeding with them. The qualifier of 'single' in Q4: 1 is taken by Sunni exegetes as textual proof of exclusive descent from Adam, which would preclude Adamic exceptionalism. Yet the acceptance of human-jinn unions by some scholars in the Islamic tradition casts doubt on whether all exegetes would have denounced Adamic exceptionalism if that option were available. On the other hand, the fact that most Sunni exegetes accept Eve was created from Adam's rib in order to affirm exclusive descent from Adam intimates that this would be their preference. The exceptionally high bar of universal scholarly agreement required for a consensus on the issue of exclusive descent cannot be claimed. Whether the more realistic bar of majority consensus is attained on this issue continues to be a vexed question. Further, it is difficult to argue that this majority consensus, even if it were attained, would be doctrinally binding since it only represents an exegetical consensus that is inherently of low evidentiary value. Therefore, all we can legitimately claim is most traditional Sunni exegetes' views would only be consistent with creationism or human exceptionalism.
The passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ represent a salvific and central event of Christian faith and, at the same time, a historical reality open to medical and forensic analysis. This article proposes an integrated approach that brings together pathophysiology, forensic medicine, and theological reflection, using the Gospel of John as its primary hermeneutical framework. Through an examination of scourging, crucifixion, and the piercing of the side, the study analyzes the main pathophysiological mechanisms potentially involved in Jesus' death, including hypovolemic shock, respiratory failure, metabolic collapse, lung injury, and stress-induced cardiomyopathy associated with extreme catecholaminergic discharge. These findings are discussed in light of contemporary medical-forensic literature and correlated with scientific studies of the Shroud of Turin and the Sudarium of Oviedo, whose features show a remarkable coherence with the Gospel narratives. Finally, the article offers a theological and anthropological reflection on Christ's bodily suffering, arguing that the extreme vulnerability of the crucified body constitutes not merely a biological phenomenon but a privileged theological locus revealing the redemptive meaning of human suffering. In this way, the study aims to contribute to the dialogue between science and faith by demonstrating the value of a rigorous interdisciplinary approach.
The article explores and critically reexamines the popular notion that biological evolution leaves little room for metaphysical freedom and free will. It guides the reader through a selection of emerging paradigms in evolutionary and theoretical biology, including the theories of autocatalysis, autopoiesis, epigenetics, and systems ecology, moving towards biosemiotics as its main focus.Special attention is given to the role of the chance-necessity interplay, the (physical) laws of nature, and the alleged directionality of evolution, as well as to the role and the scope of natural selection. The goal is to show how non-classical biology-and especially the emerging field of biosemiotics-can contribute to a better understanding of freedom as enhanced by, harnessed by, or even intrinsic to biological evolution. In doing so, the article also highlights the insights biosemiotics offers for broader engagement between theological methodology and the natural sciences (and vice versa). First, the classical Neo-Darwinian account of chance and necessity is contrasted with alternative approaches. The article then briefly presents key features of the Extended Evolutionary Synthesis (EES) and the organismal approach in biology, focusing on the concept of biological autonomy. Finally, it argues for the novelty of the biosemiotic paradigm in accommodating the notions of freedom, agency, and choice, and in methodologically engaging other disciplines, including theology. The conclusion points to possible implications for fundamental theological ethics and anthropology, as well as directions for future research in the field of science and theology.
Research across cognitive science, psychology of religion, linguistics, philosophy, and anthropology emphasizes the intertwined concepts mind and soul in shaping individuals' perceptions. Both mind and soul significantly impact human intuitions, incorporating psychological, cognitive, religious, moral, and emotional dimensions. Correcting traditional dualistic perspectives on the mind-body relationship, recent studies advocate for a tripartite model (body, mind, and soul) to offer a holistic and nuanced comprehension of human cognition. Our investigation, spanning Catholic Poland (n = 225), Orthodox Ukraine (n = 272), and Islamic Kazakhstan (n = 198), validates the intuitive association of the soul beyond the mind. The results suggest that the soul operates independently of the mind, reflecting deep cultural and religious integration into human cognition. The ethical implications of distinguishing the soul from the mind are evident in participants' moral dilemma judgments. This research advances cross-cultural comprehension of cultural influences on mental concept development in social contexts.
Condensed matter nanoscience and nanotechnology have profoundly transformed modern life, from advanced computing to biomedical applications. In condensed matter, the mesoscale, here understood as the regime spanning approximately nanometre to micrometre dimensions, marks a domain of structural complexity, in which surface effects, collective phenomena, thermal fluctuations, and nonlinear couplings often operate at comparable energy scales. In such a regime, no single interaction term typically dominates the effective physical description, and simplified asymptotic reductions give way to multiscale and numerically intensive modelling approaches. Observable behaviour may therefore not be exhausted by closed-form reduction without implying any suspension of underlying physical law. Despite its scientific importance, the mesoscale has received comparatively little philosophical attention. Philosophical and theological reflection has traditionally concentrated on the cosmic scale, where gravitational order suggests intelligibility, or on the quantum scale, where formal indeterminacy has prompted discussions of contingency and divine action. By contrast, the mesoscale has received comparatively less attention, even though biological organisation and embodied human existence crucially depend upon processes operating within the mesoscale regime. This paper proposes that mesoscale complexity offers a fruitful context for revisiting questions of freedom, suffering, and the privation of good. Rather than opposing scientific explanation and metaphysical meaning, the mesoscale is presented not as a distinct ontological realm, but as a structurally intermediate regime in which stable laws and dynamical openness coexist, thereby inviting renewed dialogue between philosophy of science, natural philosophy, and theology.
Regarding animal suffering -a theological problem that relatively recent developments intensify-, I propose two points. (1) For human holiness to be able to emerge, we humans must possess a double inheritance. On the one hand, in our immediate evolutionary past we acquired two immensely adaptive capacities-firstly, the ability to grasp others' mental contents, and, later, the self-directed speech, which enhances the self-control that had previously emerged at protecting and improving one's own reputation, i.e., one's own social interests. On the other hand, we inherit from an enormously long evolutionary process the pleasure-pain pair. This pair, which serves as a guide for behavior, is essential for both animals and humans; yet at times it obscures the knowledge that we, unlike non-human animals, possess of another person's mental contents. Thus, a conflict arises between pursuing my physical and social interests, prompted by my pleasure/pain, or, by contrast, recognizing that the needs of another person are also important. Consequently, since this conflict makes human holiness possible, we can say that the progressive evolution of animal suffering was one of the causes that made human holiness possible. (2) The horrendous nature of human suffering need not be attributed to the suffering of animals. In moments of pain or danger, animals focus solely on the immediate future as framed bytheir goal of escaping.This is the only adaptive animal behavior in such situations. By contrast, humans additionally deploy their capacity to evoke past experiences, non-immediate futures, or even states they have already realized are impossible to attain, all of which can at times be useful in the attempt to creatively find a way to escape, but, when they are not, greatly amplify pain.
Debates on AI primarily focus on its moral implications and capacity to simulate religious experiences. However, an analysis of pilgrimage offers a unique perspective on broader transformations in religious practice, ranging from traditional spiritual journeys to modern, technology-assisted routes organized bytravel agencies. Equipped with technological conveniences, emphasize efficiency and participant satisfaction, raising theological questions about the essence of pilgrimage itself. Used thomistic structure of argumentation (objections, counterarguments, and response) to examine three key issues: (1) whether AI can participate in a pilgrimage in a spiritual sense, (2) whether technological elimination of hardship diminishes the transformative potential of pilgrimage, and (3) whether cyberpilgrimage constitutes a legitimate alternative to physical pilgrimage. Drawing on classical metaphysics and contemporary AI research, the study argues that AI, lacking a rational soul, free will, and an intrinsic orientation toward transcendence, cannot be considered homo viator. Furthermore, the removal of physical hardship may undermine the ascetic and transformative dimensions of pilgrimage. The analysis of cyberpilgrimage suggests that, while psychologically engaging, virtual experiences do not replace the sacramental and embodied nature of spiritual journeys. This study contributes to the discourse on spirituality in the digital age, proposing a balanced approach that reconciles tradition with technological advancements while reaffirming the relevance of Thomistic anthropology in addressing contemporary challenges.
In this contribution, we pose three questions. The first is whether anthropogenic climate change is producing natural disasters. The second is whether all human beings are responsible for this climate change-and, therefore, for natural disasters. The third is to what extent God bears responsibility for the natural disasters caused by climate change. To the first, we answer: yes, there is anthropogenic climate change causing the current natural disasters.To the second: no, not all human beings are responsible. To the third: God is not responsible for natural disasters. We will attempt to justify these three answers.
The 5-square-meter flax fabric known as the Shroud of Turin is one of the most sacred religious icons, and one of the most debated subjects in science. Here we summarize and translate into simple terms the state of the art of scientific studies on the Shroud of Turin with regard to the body imprint and the age of the Shroud fabric. Based on the available results, we discuss whether science can determine if the imprint on the Shroud was left by the historical Jesus. Then, we argue the intriguing possibility that the Shroud is a peculiar example of how the rules and constraints of the scientific method can corroborate the concept of faith and free will, and discuss the reasons why the message of the Shroud cannot be limited to the issue of authenticity.
This paper revisits natural evil and its theological interpretation in light of recent insights from Complex Systems Science and Science and Technology Studies. Complex Systems Science shows that unpredictability and nonlinearity are intrinsic to any universe capable of generating novelty, life, and consciousness. This casts the Free Process, Natural Order, and Process Defences in a new light: God creates a cosmos governed by stable laws that, precisely because they enable openness and emergence, also make natural disasters an unavoidable by-product of a living, adaptive creation.At the same time, confronting natural evil has been a major driver of scientific and technological development. Technologies for food production, shelter or medicine have largely arisen as human responses to environmental threats and scarcity. This strengthens the Greater Goods and Soul-making Defences by showing how hardship not only shapes individual character but also stimulates inquiry and innovation. Taken together, these perspectives suggest that natural evil should not be understood as an anomaly or divine punishment, but as an intrinsic feature of a dynamic creation.
When religion and science lose their cultural significance, efficacy or attractivity in explaining the tragedy of natural disasters, an alternative proposal arises, that of conspiracy theories. This article seeks to interpret the contemporary popularity of conspiracy thinking as a kind of alternative theodicy and a serious challenge for Christian theology. For this purpose, the article presents an overview of current discussions regarding the relation between religion and conspiracy theories, with particular emphasis on the theological dimension of the problem. An examination of affinities and differences between science, religious explanation and conspiracy mentality helps to better understand the roots and main features of conspiracism in the contemporary world. It also allows us to revisit an old accusation that finds traditional religion culpable of susceptibility to conspiratorial thinking. This view can be contrasted with another perspectives which links the culture of conspiracy with new and esoteric spiritual movements or with modern rationalism or postmodern culture of suspicion. All these considerations show the limitations of simplified dialectics of religion and rationality and highlight some essential characteristics of a theological reflection on natural disasters and theodicy.The issues discussed bring up some ideas regarding the credibility of Christianity and point to the possible contribution of theology in the current discussion on conspiracism.
Natural disasters present a significant challenge to engaged theology, particularly following the decline of traditional explanations that relied on the model of divine punishment. The ongoing occurrence of such catastrophes has become a scandal and is frequently used as a critique of divine providence and goodness. In response, theology has moved beyond earlier models to develop more nuanced answers, drawing on alternative frameworks that offer greater flexibility and depth, after considering merits and flaws of available theodicies. This article reviews contemporary theological approaches to the problem of natural disasters and explores new opportunities provided by research on the function of religion, religious coping mechanisms, and the processes of belief.
