Electrified CO2 capture and conversion technologies support the energy transition by producing low-carbon chemicals and fuels, but near-term deployment depends on integration with current energy infrastructure. Reactive capture of CO2 (RCC) feeds CO2-rich liquids directly into an electrolyser, bypassing thermal regeneration and simplifying process integration. RCC has a greater tolerance to industrial impurities and can generate high-purity gaseous outputs, enabling a fully electrified chemical synthesis process that is suited to industrial CO2 feedstocks, but current RCC electrolysers are less developed than their gas-fed counterparts. In this Perspective we argue that RCC could become viable for early industrial adoption—ahead of other electrified routes and at present levels of selectivity and voltage—if stability and scale barriers are addressed. Progress will depend on engineering solvent-tolerant cathodes, formulating electrolysis-compatible capture fluids and advancing bipolar membrane efficiency, scalability and durability. We evaluate the performance targets necessary for RCC to become cost-competitive with alternative conversion technologies. Reactive capture of CO2 integrates capture and conversion, bypassing regeneration and potentially simplifying upstream–downstream process integration, but its deployment readiness is unclear. In this Perspective the authors argue that reactive capture of CO2 could be industrially viable at present levels of selectivity and voltage if stability and scale barriers are addressed.
Lattice-oxygen redox in layered oxides can enhance energy density, but its limited reversibility causes structural instability during deep cycling. Here we develop an iron-mediated strategy to regulate lattice-oxygen redox in layered oxide cathodes. In the Na2/3Mn7/12Mg1/4Fe1/6O2 cathode, Fe ions act as redox mediators, with Fe4+ capturing electrons from lattice oxygen during charging and Fe2+ donating electrons back to oxidized oxygen during discharging through chemical pathways. With the assistance of iron mediation, the reversibility of lattice-oxygen redox is dramatically improved from 75% to 99%. As a result, the lattice-oxygen-activated cathode enables a sodium-ion pouch cell to achieve an energy density of 206 Wh kg−1 and operate stably for 100 cycles at 50 mA g−1, with a capacity retention of 87.8%. Lattice-oxygen redox can raise the energy density of layered oxide cathodes, but poor reversibility causes structural degradation and capacity loss. Here the authors use iron as a bulk redox mediator to boost oxygen-redox reversibility and stabilize high-energy sodium-ion batteries.
Indoor photovoltaics harvests energy from light available inside homes and buildings for powering the Internet of Things, wireless sensors and consumer and medical electronics. A major challenge in this field is a lack of standardized testing conditions. Here a team from more than 60 research institutions and companies proposes best practices for evaluating indoor photovoltaic performance and establishing baseline stability tests. We base these recommendations on recent experimental data, published literature, practices used in academic and industrial settings, technical specifications from standards organizations, lighting databases and existing regulations. We outline procedures that begin with the recommendation of a single artificial light source, followed by guidance on setting up measurement systems and a step-by-step guide for conducting measurements and tests. These procedures are consolidated into three checklists. Our aim is to promote accurate measurement of laboratory and commercial solar cells and modules under indoor lighting, facilitating comparability across academia and industry worldwide. A major challenge for indoor photovoltaics is the absence of harmonized testing protocols, standards, and shared performance benchmarks. This Consensus Statement outlines recommended practices for testing and reporting device performance, power, efficiency and stability.
Policy mixes are key to accelerating low-carbon transitions. Yet, how combined policies impact electric vehicle (EV) adoption decisions and scale up to system-level diffusion remains unclear. Here we combine individual-level and system-level analyses to investigate how a carbon tax and information intervention, implemented individually and in combination, impact individual decision-making and system-wide EV diffusion. Across four countries (Mexico, South Africa, the USA and the UK; N = 1,589), we assessed attention towards EV information in EV choice experiments and integrated decision outcome data into a behavioural agent-based diffusion model (ABM). The policies competed for attention but had additive effects on individual EV adoption choices. When scaled through ABM, these behavioural effects produced sub- or superadditive diffusion outcomes depending on the diffusion stage and national context. Moreover, we endogenously coupled the ABM with policy support data. Our findings illustrate that combining policies can boost policy support relative to a tax alone, translating into sustained diffusion trajectories under different policy review scenarios. Policy mixes are widely used to accelerate low-carbon transitions, but their effects across different levels are unclear. Here the researchers show that a carbon tax and information intervention additively boost individual electric vehicle adoption but have divergent effects on system-level electric vehicle uptake and policy support.
All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) with inorganic solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) hold vast potential for next-generation electric vehicles (EVs) due to their high energy density and enhanced safety. However, their self-discharge behaviour, a critical factor for EVs, has not been adequately investigated so far. Here we reveal that the electronic conductivity of SSEs, typically in the range of 10−8–10−9 S cm−1, contributes to considerable physical self-discharge in ASSBs, particularly when the SSE thickness is on the order of tens of micrometres. To mitigate this physical self-discharge, the electronic conductivity of SSEs needs to be reduced to approximately 10−12 S cm−1. However, none of the prevalent SSEs meets this threshold. Therefore, reducing physical self-discharge in ASSBs will require the development of SSEs with lower electronic conductivity, alongside rational interface and full-cell designs in future research. This study provides critical insights into the self-discharge phenomenon of ASSBs, which may reshape their future design and development. Physical self-discharge critically limits the lifetime of all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs). Wang et al. showed that the non-negligible electronic conductivity of solid-state electrolytes can lead to substantial physical self-discharge in ASSBs.
Monolithic perovskite/Cu(In,Ga)Se2 tandem solar cells can surpass the efficiency limits of single-junction photovoltaics but are currently limited by interfacial optical and electronic losses. Here we demonstrate a dual-interface carrier transport engineering strategy that combines a nanoparticle-assisted NiOX intermediate recombination layer with bimolecular co-passivation at the perovskite/C60 interface, enabling conformal coverage on textured Cu(In,Ga)Se2 surfaces, suppressed defects, optimized band alignment and enhanced carrier extraction across both interfaces. Champion monolithic tandem cells achieve power conversion efficiencies of 31.09% (certified 30.57%, steady-state 30.32%) for small-area devices (0.0539 cm2) and 29.44% (certified 28.85%) for larger-area devices (1.0298 cm2). The optimized devices retain ~94% of their initial efficiency after >3,500 h of storage, ~91% after >750 h of continuous operation, and ~90% after 960 h of heating at 70 °C, demonstrating simultaneously enhanced efficiency and stability. The performance of perovskite/Cu(In,Ga)Se2 tandem solar cells is limited by optical and electronic losses at the interfaces between layers. By engineering two of these interfaces, Zeng, Wang, Tang et al. achieve a certified efficiency of 30.57% and improved device stability.
Converting plastic waste into jet fuel could help decarbonize aviation, but upcycling routes often require high pressures and long reaction times. New research demonstrates that catalysts based on atomically-dispersed Ru atoms on oxide supports can rapidly convert waste plastics into jet fuel components under mild conditions.
Evaporation-driven power generation harnesses atmospheric thermal energy via streaming potential, but sluggish, non-directional fluid flow causes waste heat dissipation, limiting the power density. Here we demonstrate a machine learning-guided vertical microrod generator (VMG) that generates a directional Laplace pressure gradient for rapid fluid flow, thereby realizing quasi-ballistic ion transport. VMG delivers 21.5% power conversion efficiency and 14.3 W m−2 power density, with stability over 30 days under ambient conditions and retaining the efficiency over 20% across 30 K ambient temperature span. Integrated VMG arrays can power commercial devices, including emergency lights and 36 W ceiling lamps. This work achieves efficient conversion of low-power-density atmospheric thermal energy into electricity, offering a practical pathway for reliable off-grid power supply. Evaporation-driven power generators are often limited by non-directional fluid flow, which reduces their efficiency. Guided by machine learning, Wu et al. developed a vertical microrod generator that improves ion transport, increasing efficiency and power density.
Monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells offer a promising pathway to surpass the efficiency limits of single-junction photovoltaics. However, their performance, stability and scalability are constrained by the recombination layer, which needs to simultaneously enable efficient charge recombination, high optical transparency and robust interfacial chemistry. Existing indium-containing transparent conductive oxides raise concerns regarding cost and sustainability, whereas silicon-based tunnel junctions suffer from parasitic optical losses. Here we show that titanium oxynitride (TiOxNy) can serve as a multifunctional, indium-free recombination layer that reconciles these competing requirements. Conductive TiOxNy enables efficient vertical carrier recombination, suppresses lateral leakage and provides anchoring sites for self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) via a tridentate binding configuration. As a result, we achieve power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 33.3% for 1.0-cm2 devices and 30.6% for industrial-size (207.87 cm2) tandems, with enhanced operational stability. Our results establish TiOxNy as a scalable and sustainable interconnection strategy for tandem photovoltaics. The interconnected recombination layer is key to advance perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Cao et al. show that titanium oxynitride reconciles the requirements for recombination layers, improving the efficiency and stability for tandem solar cells and modules.
Solid oxide-ion conductors are key functional materials in high-temperature (>500 °C) electrochemical energy technologies, such as solid oxide fuel cells. Operating these devices at lower temperatures could simplify system design, reduce degradation and broaden material options, but few conductors exhibit sufficient ion mobility in this regime. Here we report a family of oxide-ion conductors based on ((Na0.5Bi0.5)n–1TinO3n)(Bi2O2) (where n = 4, 5, 7 and 8) Aurivillius-type thin films with promising low-temperature performance. These Aurivillius phases, characterized by periodic bismuth oxide layers and a tetragonally distorted Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3 lattice, establish well-defined periodic fast ion-conducting channels allowing ionic conductivity of 0.025 S cm−1 at 350 °C. Combining atomic-scale electron ptychography imaging with first-principles calculations, we attribute these intriguing properties to localized lattice stretching and the unique dual-ion conduction pathways induced by the specific bismuth oxide intercalation. Based on this design, we constructed fuel cells that achieve a maximum power density of 0.726 W cm−2 at 400 °C, showing promising potential for technological applications. Solid oxide-ion conductors are essential for high-temperature electrochemical technologies, yet few materials maintain sufficient ion mobility at lower temperatures, where degradation is reduced and a broader range of materials can be used for auxiliary components. Here the authors introduce Aurivillius-type thin-film conductors that form periodic fast ion channels and achieve promising conductivity at 350 °C.
Identifying future winning energy technologies is increasingly important as governments design green industrial policy. By evaluating technology characteristics, policymakers can strategically pick winning technologies that deliver both global cost-competitiveness and domestic economic payoffs.
The electrification of the automotive industry is driving a rapid global expansion of battery production, which generates substantial volumes of waste from both manufacturing scrap and end-of-life batteries. Consequently, recycling capacities must scale significantly from 2026 onwards, while recyclers face major challenges: meeting regulatory requirements, establishing efficient reverse logistics and coping with the growing complexity of return streams, system designs, cell formats, and evolving chemistries. Here we provide a comprehensive overview of current recycling technologies and assess their compatibility with both state-of-the-art and next-generation batteries, highlighting the technical and economic challenges of managing diverse battery waste. We show that although established processes are largely suitable for today’s lithium-ion chemistries, future systems such as sodium-ion and solid-state batteries will require process adaptation. Beyond technical aspects, we identify seven key trends to enhance recycling economics, optimize material flows and support the development of a fully circular battery industry in the future. The rapid growth of electric vehicles is creating a surge of end-of-life batteries. This Review evaluates current recycling methods, their suitability for emerging chemistries and the practical challenges for scaling a circular battery industry.
Deep decarbonization through weather-dependent wind and solar can introduce resource adequacy risks. Climate change compounds these risks by simultaneously reshaping renewable supply and electricity demand in synergistic, region-specific ways. Here we show that long-term adequacy challenges in decarbonized grids arise from the interplay between meteorological conditions and system design, driven by prolonged renewable generation shortfalls tied to fine-scale infrastructure siting choices. Using 12-km climate projections with county-level power system optimization for New England and Texas, we find that climate change can increase resource inadequacy frequency up to fivefold by mid-century as rising cooling demand intersects with renewable resource declines or transmission bottlenecks. However, climate-informed planning provides cost-effective mitigation: Texas maintains adequacy at near-zero cost by pivoting wind capacity westward, while New England requires a modest 2.34% investment increase via solar and transmission expansion near load centres. Our findings demonstrate that achieving climate-resilient, decarbonized grids requires moving beyond aggregate capacity goals towards high-resolution, climate-informed spatial planning that reveals localized siting opportunities. Decarbonized grids may face rising resource adequacy risks as weather-driven renewable variability and climate change jointly affect supply and demand. A high-resolution model shows that these risks stem from multi-day power shortfalls and system design, but can be reduced through region-specific, climate-informed siting and transmission planning.
Stack pressure strongly influences degradation pathways in lithium-ion batteries, yet its optimal value remains poorly understood. Now, a high-precision stack pressure control and dilatometry system reveals an optimal pressure window that suppresses key degradation pathways and doubles battery lifetime.
Manipulating surface strain via lattice mismatch can enhance electrocatalytic activity in epitaxial transition metal films, but long-term performance remains challenging. Although thick films can improve stability against dissolution, they may suffer from irreversible strain relaxation, reducing catalytic activity. Here using epitaxial platinum films for the electrochemical oxygen reduction reaction, we demonstrate thickness-dependent critical strain below which irreversible strain relaxation is avoided, defining the thicknesses range that optimizes catalyst stability and activity. First principles calculations reveal that the critical strain values range from -8.2% (compressive) to 2.7% (tensile) and the optimal strain (-2.5%) is maintained in Pt films up to similar to 3-nm thick. In H-2-air polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, Pt films on iridium deliver a mass activity of 1.5 +/- 0.3 A mg(Pt)(-1) at 0.9 V and less than 10% performance loss after 30,000 cycles, compared with less than 0.4 A mg(Pt)(-1) and more than 60% performance loss for Pt and PtNi catalysts.
While electrochemical degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries are well studied, the influence of mechanical factors remains poorly understood. Here we introduce a high-precision stack-pressure control and dilatometry tool to apply a uniform and constant stack pressure on electrodes independent of electrode swelling. By increasing stack pressure fourfold over typical initial values, we double the lifetime of graphite ‖ LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 cells, an industrially relevant battery chemistry, without altering active materials or electrolytes. This suggests that many lithium-ion batteries operate under sub-optimal stack-pressure conditions, leading to curtailed lifetimes. We demonstrate that different degradation mechanisms emerge outside the optimal pressure window: low stack pressure accelerates cathode cracking, whereas high pressure promotes lithium plating. Our findings highlight coupled mechanical-electrochemical degradation mechanisms and identify stack-pressure optimization as a practical solution for increasing cycling stability.
The rising demand for hydrogen calls for improvements in the efficiency of liquid alkaline water electrolysers (LAWEs), which can be fulfilled by advanced electrodes or separators. Nevertheless, they also intensify hydrogen crossover and safety concerns, thus mandating efficient mitigation strategies. Here we studied the correlation between cathodes and hydrogen crossover behaviours and mitigated safety risks by designing a gas recombination catalyst (GRC). We attribute the elevated hydrogen crossover associated with platinum-based cathodes to their preferential utilization for the hydrogen evolution reaction that creates elevated hydrogen supersaturation, as evidenced by direct measurements of dissolved hydrogen concentration. Varying the placement of platinum layers relative to the cathode-separator interface also supports this conclusion. The implementation of a GRC reduces hydrogen crossover by 95% without affecting LAWE performance and functions for over 1,000 h at 1 A cm-2. This study provides insights into hydrogen supersaturation and the crossover mechanism, as well as offering a promising pathway to enhance the efficiency and reliability of alkaline water electrolysis.
Medium- and heavy-duty vehicles are a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the United States and globally. Batteries and fuel cells can play a critical role in decarbonizing this sector. Here we conduct a life-cycle GHG assessment of class 3-8 internal combustion engine vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in the United States. Compared with conventional diesel-fuelled options, alternative powertrains reduce emissions across vehicle types: HEVs by 1-26%, FCEVs using hydrogen produced from steam methane reforming by 12-51%, BEVs powered by the grid by 44-68%, FCEVs using hydrogen produced from electrolysis powered by renewable electricity by 72-82% and BEVs powered by renewable electricity by 87-92%. The ordering of these powertrains holds across cargo weights, drive cycles, regional electricity grids and grid projections. We also assess renewable electricity consumption and hydrogen leakage, two factors that must be considered when evaluating the suitability of different powertrains for decarbonization.
