A functional analysis of the artifacts involved in metalworking can provide interesting information about the steps required to obtain a metal object starting from the raw mineral. Combined with a spatial analysis, it allows to evaluate the organization of the work, how people are involved in the production and management of specialized areas in relation to domestic spaces. In this paper, we discuss the role that macrolithic tools played in metalworking, particularly in the processing of minerals, in an Early Bronze Age village in the ancient Near-East (Arslantepe period VI B2, 3100-2800 BC, Eastern Anatolia). Starting with an overview of the distribution of evidence related to metal production in the village, we focus on two sample areas: a metallurgical atelier and a storage room of a house. Through macroscopic observations and use-wear analyses of a sample of macrolithic tools correlated with other data from these areas, the production processes conducted in the metallurgical area are documented, particularly the steps involving minerals before smelting. Moreover, we investigate whether some activities related to metallurgy were conducted within a domestic space to verify if other people aside from the artisans were involved, even marginally, in the production cycle.
Archaeological research conducted in Eastern Arabia over the past decades has provided valuable insights into the social and cultural significance of certain animal species in prehistoric communities. This study examines 26 double-perforated shark teeth from five archaeological sites along Oman's coast, dating from the mid-6th to the late 3rd millennium BCE. These artefacts, ranging from Neolithic shell middens to Early Bronze Age settlements, suggest a consistent tradition of modification and utilization. Morphological and use-wear analyses were complemented by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) on identified residues. An experimental pilot study tested the hypothesis that these double-perforated teeth functioned as arrowheads. Although direct evidence of bow and arrow use in Oman's prehistory is absent, the high frequency of lithic projectile points in Neolithic contexts, combined with experimental findings, provides preliminary support for this functional interpretation.
The South Arabian society of the first millennium BCE was predominantly sedentary, rooted in urban centers and agricultural villages, hierarchically structured around tribal affiliations. These tribes functioned primarily as social and economic units that extended beyond mere genealogy and could organize into larger political entities. The term bayt ("house") most closely captures the concept of family or extended lineage, linked to a broader notion of kinship. Inscriptions and archaeological evidence, such as those from Tamna' and the near necropolis of Hayd bin 'Aqil, shed light on the social ties of this urban center and its familial structures, with funerary inscriptions connecting burial sites to large family groups. Onomastic data also provide insights into marital practices, revealing diverse dynamics. Although women's social status was largely subordinate to the masculine figures of their families, certain cases reveal instances where women achieved degrees of autonomy, including in financial matters. Some sources, both internal and external, hint at particular family arrangements, such as possible traces of matrilineality or alleged cases of polyandry. However, South Arabian society appears to have been predominantly oriented towards monogamous relationships within a primarily patriarchal framework.
The article examines the family in Early Mesopotamia from a broad perspective. The study starts with a lexicographic and theoretical analysis, addressing various issues related to the interpretation and reconstruction of familial structures and their dynamics within Sumerian sources. An introductory section is dedicated to the overview of written evidence on family and the history of studies. The article subsequently examines kinship terminology and explores its application in conveying socio-economic relationships beyond familial connections (pseudo-or fictive kinship). It provides a description of the structure and general features of marriages, addressing terminology for spouses, polygyny, celibacy, and the exchange of women in the framework of "interdynastic" marriages. Ultimately, it explores the various terminologies for in-laws and the broader socio-economic concepts and networks (house, clan, lineage).
Two key research questions frequently arise in secondary literature concerning the family relationships of low-ranking workers recorded in administrative texts from the Ur III period (ca. 2112-2004 BC) in ancient Mesopotamia. The first pertains to marital status, while the second investigates the parentage of children listed alongside workers in these rosters. Given the diverse range of terms related to workers in administrative texts, scholars have attempted to address these questions through textual analysis and the examination of their contexts of attestation. This article focuses on a selection of these hypotheses, offering critical reflections on them. The discussion begins with the primary sources before turning to the research questions themselves, in order to assess both the limitations and the potential of administrative texts for exploring such issues and, consequently, for studying family and kinship structures.
This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of the legal and patrimonial aspects of the family within the Nuzi context. The texts from Nuzi and the kingdom of Arrapha, to which the city belonged, constitute a unique corpus distinguished by its specificity. These documents allow for the reconstruction of the social conditions and activities of a population over a relatively narrow timespan, encompassing all segments of society within a well-defined geographical area. These characteristics enhance the value of these texts as a source of information on ancient Near Eastern society. The geographical location of the Arrapha kingdom is particularly significant, as it was situated east of the Tigris and south of the Little Zab. Consequently, an analysis of Nuzi contributes to unveiling historical aspects of the Trans-Tigris region, a vast territory of considerable historical importance.
The analysis of archaeological evidence in funerary remains is a fundamental tool for the study of symbolic behaviour and social organization in prehistoric communities. Studies in this field have until now focused on the data relating to rank and power, chiefly emphasizing the importance of grave goods (presence or absence, quality and quantity), ritual offerings, and ceremonial or cult activity that played a central role in social control. Although these aspects are clearly important, the focus of this paper is on the results obtained from a closely integrated archaeological and anthropological study. All the data examined, derived from different disciplinary fields, are considered as visible (and invisible) evidence that together define the archaeological context. Toppo Daguzzo Tomb Three, together with the Bronze Age chamber tombs discovered in southeastern Italy in recent decades, illustrates the leading role of the warrior elite in a lineage-based society.
Child burials provide significant data through which it is possible to investigate the rituals and ideology of ancient communities, as well as their demography and social structures. This study addresses these issues by analysing almost six hundred infant burials from cremation and inhumation necropolises of Northern Italy dated to the various phases of the Bronze Age (c. 2200-950 BCE), using both published and newly generated data. The research reveals a distinctive development in infant funerary treatments and significant diachronic changes. From ritualized inhumations in the Early Bronze Age, which include possible cases of ancestor cults and sacrificial practices, we observed a general 'inclusive' attitude towards children during the Middle and Recent Bronze Age. Significant variations exist, nonetheless, between the practice of inhumation and cremation. While children under 2 years of age are present among inhumations, they are largely underrepresented among cremations. During the Final Bronze Age, we observed a gradual reintegration of some children into the urnfields, particularly those of high status, which seems to reflect the stabilization of social inequalities and rank inheritance. Physiological stresses and diseases were systematically examined to verify the change in health conditions, in connection to nutrition. Their drastic decrease at the onset of the Terramare cycle suggests the improvement of living conditions. Around 1200-1150 BCE, approaching the collapse of the Terramare, however, the dramatic increase of infant burials in some contexts, such as Casinalbo, suggests episodes of food shortage and epidemics.
This study examines the fluid and dynamic nature of family and kinship during the Ur III period (c. 2112-2004 BCE), showing a flexible framework of relationships that extended beyond biological bonds. The central role of the e2 (household) as the primary socio-economic unit highlights the interconnectedness of individuals bound by shared labor, obligations and physical proximity. Practices such as adoption, inheritance, and succession demonstrate the resilience of kinship systems, allowing families to manage socio-economic and political changes. Anthropological concepts, particularly Sahlins' "mutuality of being," provide a lens to understand how kinship was constructed through shared existence rather than strictly biological or legal ties. Case studies, such as that of Lala-gula, illustrate processes of "kinning," "de-kinning," and "rekinning," showcasing the negotiated nature of familial roles. This research challenges static definitions of family, highlighting its cultural and functional components, and offers insights into the emerging concept of kinship as a dynamic, socially produced process.
The article focuses on the interrelations between families, institutions, and administrative procedures in Neo-Assyrian society, considering both the state and private levels of regulations and transactions, starting from the court and examining the roles and conditions of families in rural and urban contexts. Terminology related to family is analyzed in administrative and legal documents. Various issues are considered, such as the impact of the imperial dimension and organization, the preservation of the family structure as functional to the administration of the territory and its exploitation, the economic function of households in production and trade, and the position of women as particularly indicative of social dynamics.
This paper aims to provide insights into the nature and composition of families and households in the land of Ashtata, along the middle Euphrates, during the Late Bronze Age, by relating archaeological evidence to written documents. The excavation of entire neighborhoods sites such as Tell Bazi, Tell Munbaqa, and Meskene Qadime has provided invaluable data for studying private houses within larger urban layouts, which can also be examined in relation to the social networks of significant portions of these ancient towns. The discovery of private archives, particularly from Meskene and Munbaqa, containing documents on family matters, offers rich information on family composition, as well as the complexity and fluidity of their internal relationships.
The present paper discusses the archaeological visibility of the "family" in early Neolithic and Chalcolithic societies of Western Asia, from the tenth to the fifth millennium BCE. The relation between "family", co-residence and the organization of domestic life in these societies is investigated; the varying use of terms as domestic, house, household and family shall be enquired with the aim of evaluating the social and economic role of the co-residents within the Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic communities. We will argue that "families" can be envisioned at least since the Prepottery Neolithic B (half 9th millennium) in most regions of Western Asia.
This study aims to investigate the activities associated with flaked stone tools at the Bronze Age fortified settlement of Coppa Nevigata (Apulia, Italy). The settlement's chronological framework, spanning from the 18th to the 8th century BCE, provides an opportunity for both diachronic and synchronic analyses of the lithic assemblage. This approach enables a reconstruction of the recurring activities and behavioural patterns of the community in relation to stone tool use throughout the settlement's occupation. The use-wear analysis of the lithic assemblage was carried out using a low-magnification approach, which facilitated the identification of the activities in which the tools were involved and how these activities evolved over time. During the early phases of the Bronze Age, flaked stone tools were primarily employed for working soft and medium-soft materials. By the Late Bronze Age, there was a marked increase in the processing of harder materials, a shift that may be linked to the growing presence and use of bronze tools within the settlement.
A BSTRACT - Melka Kunture is a rich complex of prehistoric sites located on the margin of the Main Ethiopian Rift between 2000 and 2200 m above sea level. It provided abundant Pleistocene lithic tools, faunal and hominin remains within a high -elevation environment, with vegetation belonging to the Dry evergreen Afromontane Forest and Grassland Complex. In this context, Hippopotamus cf. amphibius is widely attested and dominates the faunal assemblage. Hippo activity and behavior are exceptionally recorded in several ichnological horizons, whereas cut -marks on a hippo's scapula and tibia prove the hominin-hippo interaction. Furthermore, ichnological evidence proves that hominins and hippos have shared the same areas. In this paper, we combine stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis and ichnological evidence of hippos from the Melka Kunture sequence to reconstruct the hippo diet, habitat, and behavior. Our results indicate that during the Early and Middle Pleistocene at sites dated between 1.95 Ma and 0.68 Ma, hippos mostly consumed C 4 plants, although they also fed on C 3 vegetation. This feeding strategy is consistent with previous isotopic studies in other archaeological sites, which concluded that hippos are more versatile and opportunistic feeders than full grazers. In addition, the elevation of Melka Kunture is a significant factor when observing stable carbon isotopic values of tooth enamel because the C 3 signal may also reflect the proportion of C 3 plants and grasses, as evidenced by pollen and phytolith analyses. Furthermore, hippo fossil footprints, trackways, and a trail described exceptional and well-preserved evidence of Pleistocene hippo anatomy and behavior that are consistent with observations of the modern hippo species. Our analysis offers a complementary perspective for reconstructing the environment available to the hominins in the area during the Pleistocene.
The paper illustrates the two main routes of diffusion of the iconography of the anthropomorphic vessel with a chin -mark, a model that appears in various cultural phenomena of the Near East, where it originated, and of Europe, between the end of the 7th and the 6th millennium cal BCE. The so-called "collective anthropomorphic" motif, of which a detailed overview is presented, supports the hypothesis of two diffusion routes: one termed "continental", which ends in central-eastern Europe, and the other, defined as "maritime", which arrives in the south-east of the Italian peninsula. The routes and tempo of spread, as well as the longevity of these particular decorative patterns, highlight possible links between the newly established farming groups in Europe and the communities of origin, and suggest an ideological and spiritual orientation based on a supra -regional communication system.
The study of material culture, particularly ceramics, is an important aspect of archaeology. The classification and typology of ceramics is often a key focus, with traditional methods based on the observation of specific morphological characteristics and the creation of taxonomies based on these types. However, recent advances in digital technologies and the use of Machine Learning have led to the development of new, digital approaches to ceramic classification. These approaches rely on statistical methods and computer science techniques to quantify vessel morphology and create multivariate datasets. The aim of this study is to compare a traditional approach elaborated by Renato Peroni and applied by many of his students, especially in the field of Italian protohistory, with a proposed digital method of ceramic classification. The comparison will be conducted using a database of approximately 1400 records from several Italian Bronze and Iron Age funerary contexts, including Casinalbo and other contexts in the Po Valley and northern Italy, as well as Pianello di Genga and Torre Galli. The proposed digital approach involves a combination of a non-linear dimensionality reduction algorithm and density -based clustering for the automated classification of ceramics. The study will consider the similarities and differences between the two methods and the potential for combining them in a complementary manner. The results of the study will provide a deeper understanding of traditional typologies and explore the potential for digital methods to enhance, improve, and complement them.
The site of Monte Croce Guardia offers a unique opportunity to investigate the spatial organization of a Final Bronze Age settlement in peninsular Italy. Data from new excavations and geophysical surveys are presented, focusing on the distribution of identified dwellings. This distribution is explored and compared with that of coeval sites such as Sorgenti della Nova and Sovana. An organizational pattern based on groups of huts, likely related to family groups, emerges from the analysis. The described model is further compared with several settlements and buildings dating from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age, across continental Italy, particularly focusing on the area south of the Po river.
Recent studies have focused on the bacterial pathogen Yersinia pestis (the infective cause of plague): its aDNA has been isolated, and sequenced, since about 5200 cal BP in Latvia (Eastern Europe). Plague afflicted human populations, spreading across Eurasia with a particular evidence during the European Late Neolithic/Bronze Age (LNBA). A dense and reliable pedigree of the pathogens has been reconstructed through direct sequencing of bacterial aDNA. The present paper proposes a procedure to isolate and trace the process of different epidemic outbreaks, by reconsidering the C-14 datings of the 31 Eurasian individuals so far identified as affected by Yersinia pestis, in its LNBA- lineage, with sequenced genomes belonging to its different internal strains. The raw C-14 dates are grouped by statistical compatibility through Student's t -test and calibrated with the IntCal20 curve, isolating the possible outbreaks and bracketing them through Bayesian analysis. The spread from Europe to Eurasia and the duration of epidemic waves are reviewed.
In a period comprised between the late 6 th and the first half of the 5 th millennium BCE (ca. 5300-4500 cal BCE), the so-called 'Ubaid/Black-on-Buff' phenomenon occurred, which interested the entire Greater Mesopotamia. Among the various elements of material culture, the Blackon -Buff painted pottery is the most distinctive and widespread element throughout the whole area. Supra -regional similarities have often overshadowed intra-regional differences between the Black -on -Buff repertoires of various geographical regions. Using a stylistic (morpho-decorative) approach to pottery analysis and emphasising aspects of dissimilarity and/or local similarities between the repertoires of adjacent regions, the paper will highlight the possibility of identifying local characteristic traits within the Black -on -Buff repertoires of Greater Mesopotamian regions. What emerges is a strong ceramic regionalism in the Ubaid/Black-on-Buff horizon, with a predominantly east -west (rather than north -south) trajectory of interaction. Furthermore, the paper points out the possibility that the spread of the Black -on -Buff phenomenon did not follow a single path, but diversified and localised contact routes for each area.
