Abstract What makes a successful military operation? For military planners, this question has been, and still is, one of the most perplexing problems a military organisation can be confronted with. The scientific research groups in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) have attempted to construct a model on how to adopt the most optimal approach to command and control in military operations regardless of force composition and mission type. The concept is called Command and Control Agility or C2 Agility for short. The purpose is by using best practices to design a universal effective concept for C2 in military operations. This paper will use 43 case studies from World War II (WWII) selected from a set of criteria that will ensure homogenous case selection, and investigate the significance of C2 Agility for a successful outcome using statistical analysis. WWII is relevant because during the current Russo-Ukrainian war the question of C2 approach in a high-intensity warfare scenario against a near-peer opponent has again become highly relevant for the militaries of NATO.
Militaries worldwide are increasingly relying on social media to address recruitment challenges, particularly in attracting women to their ranks. This study compares the portrayal of female soldiers and military life in YouTube Shorts from the U.S. Army and the German Bundeswehr. It analyses how these militaries depict female soldiers in their recruitment efforts and the impact of these portrayals in reinforcing or challenging the male-dominated image of military service. Grounded in post-constructivist feminist theory, this study argues that cultural and historical differences between the U.S. and Germany shape the ways in which women are portrayed in these videos. Using a multimodal discourse analytical approach, the findings show that the U.S. Army focuses on diversity, self-empowerment and collective military pride, while the Bundeswehr emphasises civilian duties and professionalism. Both militaries avoid depictions of violence, promoting military service as a path of personal growth and adventure. This study contributes to the study of gender and military recruitment by showing how differing cultural contexts influence the representation of women in military service. It calls for further research into how these portrayals affect recruitment outcomes and the real-life experiences of female soldiers.
Sweden and Finland have a long history of cooperation in military training, pooling resources to educate officers for NATO crisis response and United Nations (UN) peace operations. Key exercises like the Combat Joint Staff Exercise (CJSE) and VIKING (VK) are essential for training officers to handle complex conflict environments. Despite their success, the current evaluation framework for these exercises lacks specificity and reliability, leading to general and insufficiently detailed assessments. This article reviews the existing evaluation methods used in CJSE and VIKING, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. It identifies issues, such as unclear objectives and insufficient criteria, which result in gaps and overlaps in evaluator reports. To address these problems, this article proposes a new evaluation framework based on Kirkpatrick’s criteria, incorporating specific, measurable, assignable, realistic and time-related (SMART) training objectives (TOs) subdivided into specific training objectives (STOs) and microlearning objectives (MLOs). This new approach aims to provide a more detailed and aggregable evaluation, supporting timely decision-making by exercise directors and control centres.
In an era marked by rapid changes and unforeseen crises, organisations face increasing challenges in navigating complex environments. Recent events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, geopolitical conflicts and natural disasters, underscore the need for organisations capable of surviving and thriving in turbulent conditions. Organisational resilience (OR) has become an essential construct in strategic planning and maintaining operational continuity, yet quantitative measures remain limited and lacking empirical validation. This study addresses this gap by introducing the 6-factor organisational resilience tool (6FORT), a quantitative framework designed to assess and enhance resilience in military units. Developed for the Israeli Air Force (IAF), 6FORT provides a practical approach to measuring resilience, aiming to inform emergency preparedness and recovery plans in operational squadrons. The study presents the development and psychometric features of 6FORT, based on a large cohort ( N = 18,697). Using mixed methods, a six-factor model was obtained: leadership, open communication, task readiness, organisational learning, connectedness and professionalism. 6FORT demonstrates strong consistency and external validity, with factors that align with previous literature. The relationship between OR and organisational performance was also explored. By integrating 6FORT into organisational practices, military leaders can gain actionable insights into their units’ strengths and weaknesses, allowing for targeted resilience development and crisis management.
As outer space emerges as a central domain of geopolitical contestation and technological disruption, the conceptual tools of classical deterrence are proving increasingly inadequate. Traditional models, grounded in nuclear-era assumptions of rational actors, dyadic competition and visible escalation thresholds, fail to capture the complexity of today’s contested orbital environment. This article addresses this theoretical shortfall by proposing a conceptually and operationally innovative deterrence architecture: Technologically dynamic deterrence model (TDDM). Integrating insights from strategic theory, space security and emerging technology studies, TDDM reconceptualises deterrence as a layered, adaptive and metrics-driven system tailored to the realities of the contemporary space domain. Through comparative analysis of U.S., Chinese and NATO space strategies, the article demonstrates the divergent logics of modern deterrence postures and highlights the growing risks of doctrinal misalignment and normative fragmentation. It concludes by offering a set of policy recommendations aimed at enhancing strategic stability through resilience, transparency and cross-domain integration. The study contributes to both theoretical innovation and practical guidance, offering a comprehensive pathway for deterrence thinking in the era of space militarisation and emerging technologies.
This study introduces a machine learning (ML)-based detection framework that is configured with windowed or panoramic settings on a single, cost-efficient 360-degree passive camera for use in autonomous military unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs). Active sensor fusion systems are often costly and easily detectable. However, this study explores a passive method that boosts stealth and reduces complexity. The detection framework partitions the panoramic image to focus on localised or global scene views depending on task demands, optimising both inference resolution and processing efficiency. A dataset of CV90 and BMP-2 combat vehicles was collected and used to train and test SSD ResNet50, Faster R-CNN ResNet50 and EfficientDet D1 models within this configuration architecture. Experimental results showed that EfficientDet D1 in windowed configuration yielded the highest static detection accuracy, while Faster R-CNN in windowed configuration outperformed other models in live field deployment. The complete system was integrated into the Laykka UGV platform and assessed at Technology Readiness Level 6 (TRL 6) in representative mission-relevant environmental conditions. The results underscore the feasibility of integrating passive sensors and ML in autonomous expandable UGV systems.
This review aims to determine the scope of existing literature, summarise key findings and identify gaps for future research. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines, this scoping review initially identified 346 studies on the turnover intention of military personnel in Taiwan. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 17 studies were ultimately included in the final analysis. Findings indicate that psychological factors, such as job stress and job satisfaction, play a crucial role in military personnel's intention to leave. Additionally, work environment factors significantly predict turnover intention beyond psychological factors, as they contribute to the fulfilment of basic psychological needs. However, personal characteristics show inconsistent effects. The practical implications suggest that reducing turnover intention among military personnel requires fostering adaptive internal states through need-satisfying work environments. Addressing work-related stressors and enhancing job satisfaction could help mitigate turnover risks. Although turnover intention is widely studied in industrial and organisational psychology, it remains understudied in military contexts. As a result, the key antecedents of turnover intention among military personnel, as well as the mechanisms underlying these relationships, remain largely unknown. This scoping review contributes to bridging this gap by synthesising existing findings and offering a foundation for future research on military turnover intention.
This essay is a reflection on the challenges faced by military academies, while developing in naval and officer-cadets, the ‘singular mindset’ required to prepare them for the professional responsibility awaiting them as future officers of the armed forces. As vocational schools, the main purpose of military academies is to train leaders of the armed forces with a comprehensive training and education programme, including, in most countries today, university studies. The choice of a specific academic discipline is of less importance, as there is no single or unique way to become an officer. The most important thing is that the education provided at military academies leads to the development of critical thinking rooted in a solid general culture at the service of the profession of arms.
In the 2020s, logistics support structures are sourced from a combination of civilian contractors, governmental institutions and/or the host nation’s military component. Consequently, the maturity of the support correlates with the host nation’s logistics capabilities. This study aims to examine the trends that will affect the host nation support (HNS) operational environment in Finland over the next 20 years from the logistics point of view. This entails focusing on the logistics trends that have an interactive relationship with both civil society logistics and the host nation’s military logistics. The trend analysis is based on a literature review and semi-structured interviews. Regarding the study’s empirical Finnish perspective, the trend research was conducted using the PESTE framework when interviewing Finnish logistics experts, and the integrated results are presented through the PESTE dimensions. According to the findings from the literature review and interviews, the existing trends have a multi-tier influence on Finnish logistics. The HNS logistics environment in Finland is evolving towards more sustainable and digital practices when looking ahead to 2040. In this kind of environment, much depends on supply chain managers, both civilian and military, when it comes to ensuring a sufficiently resilient logistics-operating environment.
Psychological operations have historically played a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts, leveraging media and ideology to influence minds rather than battlefields. As warfare transitions into a multidomain environment, artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as both a catalyst and a complicating factor in modern influence strategies. This paper traces the evolution of psychological warfare from World War II (WWII) to present-day disinformation campaigns, highlighting how adversaries exploit democratic transparency to undermine public trust. Drawing upon historical case studies and recent developments – including election interference, deepfake technologies and AI-enhanced sentiment analysis – the research demonstrates how AI-driven psychological operations now operate across physical, digital and emotional boundaries. The authors argue that the integration of cyberpsychology and AI into the psychological operations toolkit marks a strategic inflection point. Without a coherent, ethically grounded doctrine, liberal democracies risk ceding influence to adversaries who wield digital propaganda with increasing sophistication.
Optimised human performance in isolated and extreme environments requires sophisticated survival systems and is subject to several shared stressors. However, a positive psychology framework for human adaptability optimisation allows for a salutogenic approach that considers performance as affected by perceived wellbeing. This study investigates the salutogenic and evocative properties of food consumption and personal objects during spaceflight and military missions, hypothesising that emotionally significant food and objects may influence wellbeing and reduce the adverse symptoms of homesickness, isolation and sensory hunger. The exploratory research involved N = 53 participants, including N = 25 Italian military personnel and N = 28 astronauts from international backgrounds. Participants completed a qualitative online survey, and analysis was conducted using Braun and Clarke’s inductive thematic analysis model. Data analysis revealed five main themes addressing the evocative and functional properties of objects and food, self-perceived post-mission changes in food and objects attachment, psychosocial growth and behavioural changes observed by others. Results indicated that food and objects-related themes strongly or moderately supported the hypothesis, while hypothesised post-mission psychosocial and behavioural changes lacked sufficient evidence. The evocative and salutogenic role of food and objects during missions was found to significantly influence wellbeing, highlighting the need for a positive framework in survival psychology.
Specialist officers (SOs) (OR 6–9) are a key category of the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF). This study aimed to identify factors affecting the recruitment and retention of this key category. A longitudinal study design was chosen; interviews comprising a cohort of 20 persons were conducted during three successive years. A part of the analysis focussed on the development of organisational commitment over time. The major findings included that high organisational commitment counteracted negative factors such as low wages and limited career opportunities. However, there was serious concern regarding the long-term prospects of military employment. Overall, high affective commitment was found to be the most important contributing factor, even extending to those leaving the military. SOs were largely content with their choice of career; they considered the work as tactic officers (OF) as bureaucratic and unattractive.
Finnish national preparedness is conceptualized in the comprehensive security model (CSM). It presents a cooperation model for Finnish security stakeholders: officials, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), companies, and citizens. The concept of resilience is sparingly used in Finnish strategy documents but is a major objective for North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which Finland joined in 2023. NATO sets the minimum criteria for national preparedness in seven NATO baseline requirements (NBRs) of resilience. NATO considers resilience a national responsibility. This paper investigates to what extent the Finnish CSM covers the NBRs, and which stakeholders are entrusted with safeguarding them. A framework utilizing the seven NBRs and three stakeholder levels is developed. Recent Finnish Government level documents are used as the main source of data for the study, supplemented with expert interviews. The results suggest that the CSM covers all the NBRs. The CSM is also broader in scope than the NBRs. The two NBR categories, ability to deal with large-scale population movements and resilient civilian transportation systems , are not covered regarding the individual citizens’ level, but this is not deemed to be a major problem.
Abstract This article aims to comprehend the processes of forecasting and adopting new technologies by the armies of modern states. In this regard, we studied the relevant literature regarding a series of wars where new technologies were widely implemented, ranging from the American Civil War to the Gulf War. The identification of successful and failed examples of forecasting and adoption has led us to identify certain timeless trends that persist despite the passing of years, technological evolutions and manners of conducting combat. These trends, which include the fact that individuals who make the most accurate forecasts often differ from those who influence the implementation of novel technologies, the importance of a high educational level within both military and social ecosystems for the emergence, recognition and effective implementation of technological innovations and the influence of political systems and military administrative structures, are presented in the conclusion of the article.
Abstract In this paper, the possible impact effects of orbital bombardment systems and their feasibility are studied. These effects are the projectile penetration into concrete and steel targets and seismic effects. The equations of motion for the re-entry of a projectile and the penetration were solved numerically. The projectile penetration is modelled using the Alekseevskii–Tate model. By varying the altitude (h), projectile length (L), manoeuvre velocity (ΔV) and the target properties, the flight time (t), earthquake magnitude (M) and penetration depth (P) are calculated. The calculations show that the impact of a tungsten alloy rod with a length of 8 m and a 0.4 m diameter results in an earthquake with a seismic magnitude of only 2.5 on the Richter scale. For concrete, the optimal result is obtained for a projectile with a length of 0.56 m. It penetrates 1.79 m with a minimal ΔV trajectory. These results show that a kinetic orbital bombardment system is not feasible without major technological developments, the impact angle being a bottleneck of the concept. Moreover, one has to accept very high costs. Without any means to change the attitude of the projectile, using ICBMs or bombers shows a better penetration performance than re-entry. Highlights Weapons in orbit may provide a strategic advantage. However, they are restricted by international space laws. Impact angle of the projectile is a bottleneck for kinetic orbital bombardment. Larger impact angles can be achieved, but at the expense of a larger mass-to-orbit. A hypersonic drag device may be used to optimise the impact angle and thus improve the system. Alternative projectile delivery methods (Bomber, Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM)) show better performance for both steel and concrete targets. Essentially, only penetration phenomena matter because the seismic effects are not significant. Therefore, orbital bombardment systems don’t even resemble weapons of mass destruction (WMD). Given their limited effect, destroying a particular target requires a guidance and flight control system, which, given the high velocities, may not be feasible.
Abstract Military headquarters have been seen as grown up to the point that this reduces the agility of decision-making and decreases the survivability of the headquarters and command posts in war. At the same time, war is becoming ever more complex and intertwined through the fast pace of information flows and technological advancements. This design science research aims to solve these problems of headquarters. The research was done by framing the problem with several theories and then designing a solution. Systems thinking and complexity leadership theories were used to understand the problem. After this qualitative coding was used to form complexity leadership themes specific to military headquarters. These themes were combined with organisational theories and the military theories of tempo-based operations. A solution was then designed through theory-based analysis and abductive reasoning and tested in exercises. This article suggests that military headquarters should not seek for one optimal organisational structure, but instead the structures should be intentionally and dynamically tailored according to the situation and context at hand. A headquarters seen through the mental model of a Dynamic Headquarters Structure (DHS) can adjust its own networking, information-flows and delegation of decision-making to thrive in different environments.
Abstract The purpose of this research is to conduct two instrumental case studies, one from Finland and the other from Israel. These case studies explain ‘why’ and ‘how’ clear and significant differences exist between these two nations in the area of military innovation and adaptation. Research strategy is not to conduct a comparative case study, but results make it possible to find and evaluate operating methods suitable for building and safeguarding Finnish society in cooperation between private and public actors. The operating methods being studied focus on the early stages in the life cycle of developing military capability. This study utilises the inductive approach, in which data guide the research process. As the research progresses, new information is built on top of the acquired data, and the overall picture of the topic is constructed in an iterative manner. Contribution of the research are propositions that the Finnish Defence Forces would benefit from a competence-based strategic approach to partially replace the resource-based approach. A separate sub-strategy with its foundation in competence-based strategy is proposed for innovation activities. Results indicate that the excellence-based approach chosen by Israel that emerged in the case study and literature review has specifically produced results in the area of developing innovation activities.
Abstract Classical deterrence theory has its origins in the era of the Cold War and the nuclear arms race between the USA and the Soviet Union. Therefore, deterrence is mainly studied from the perspective of the superpowers. This study approaches deterrence from the less explored perspective of a small country by analysing academic deterrence literature and further deepening this perspective by means of a survey. As a result, the study produced a new view of how a small state can be positioned in modern deterrence theories, by introducing national and international enabling and preventive factors. The main findings of the research suggest that national enabling factors, such as a strong national defence and the resilience of the society, are important for a small state in terms of compensating for the deficit in influence in relation to superpowers. Limited options for building deterrence can be augmented by means of international enabling factors, such as military and political alliances. Deficits in terms of available military resources and international status could translate into national preventive factors, such as weakness in the eyes of the aggressor. The aggressor’s political intentions and history could appear as international preventive factors if they influence decision-making in an undesirable manner.
Abstract In the face of an intricate defense landscape, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) confronts evolving challenges, necessitating transformative strategies. In the past decade, the IDF championed innovation through decentralized silos (“islands of innovation”), steered by 4th generation Chief Innovation Officers (CINOs) with ‘liquid professionalism’. Since the establishment of the Combat Methods and Innovation (CMI) division, the IDF has formed an institutionalized innovation management system, managed by intraorganizational 5th generation CINOs. This system allowed binding these islands into a cohesive framework (an archipelago) designed to rapidly respond to internal developments and external challenges, showcasing the IDF’s capacity to navigate the complexities of modern warfare with agility and foresight. The main contribution of this article is two-folded, first it advocates for the cultivation of two types of change agents: a. the ‘transformative commanders’, leaders adept at instigating profound, organization-wide change; b. intraorganizational 5th generation CINOs. Second, it introduces a dual-pronged framework specifically designed to harness and streamline a bottom-up innovation within military organizations, and in particularly within the context of the IDF. This interdisciplinary framework is derived from both sociological and organizational systems engineering perspectives. The methodology employed to delineate its contributions leverages the theory of systematic operative design.
Abstract This study employs Erwin Panofsky’s iconographic analysis to decode the 2021 US Army recruiting campaign ‘The Calling’, situating it against the historical backdrop of military recruitment since the all-volunteer force’s inception. Panofsky’s framework allows for a dissection of the campaign’s layered narrative and its animated aesthetics, which notably diverge from prior campaign’s emphasis on the warrior archetype. The analysis progresses from a description of visual and narrative element’s (pre-iconography), to an investigation of symbolic meanings (iconography), culminating in an interpretation of underlying societal attitudes (iconology). ‘The Calling’ reimagines military enlistment as a heroic pursuit, echoing the superhero genre’s origin stories, and emerges as a response to waning interest in military careers. The campaign targets the zeitgeist of the young American population, offering a sense of heroism as compensation in a challenging recruitment climate marked by a robust economy and low unemployment. By presenting service as a ‘calling’, the Army navigates the complex terrain of contemporary cultural values, seeking to resonate with potential recruits on an ideological level, particularly within race and gender minority communities.
