Perceived pesticide contamination may not align directly with the toxicological significance of dietary exposure. This study juxtaposed a cross-sectional convenience survey of 1318 adults in Greece with independent official monitoring and deterministic exposure assessment for strawberries. Among 14 commodities, strawberries received the highest perceived contamination rating, with 85.9% selecting one of the two highest categories. The official Greek pesticide-residue monitoring dataset for 2022–2024 comprised 171 strawberry samples; 140 (81.9%) contained at least one quantified residue. Because sampling included objective, selective, and suspect records, this percentage characterizes the analysed dataset rather than market prevalence in Greece. Ten samples (5.8%) had at least one numerical maximum residue level (MRL) exceedance, and three (1.8%) were classified as non-compliant after accounting for measurement uncertainty. Using the EFSA PRIMo model, revision 3.1, and HELLANS-specific consumption inputs, the highest acute estimate was 51.9% for the acute reference dose for formetanate. All upper-bound strawberry-specific chronic estimates were below 1% of the acceptable daily intake, with a maximum of 0.3809% for abamectin. Thus, high perceived contamination and frequent residue quantification coexisted with exposure estimates below the corresponding health-based guidance values under the applied scenarios, supporting separate but complementary interpretation of occurrence, compliance, and dietary exposure in risk communication.
The excessive use of conventional NPK fertilizers can reduce nutrient use efficiency due to nutrient losses, emphasizing the need for controlled-release fertilizer systems. This study aimed to prepare and evaluate olive pomace-derived biochar (BC) as a carrier for nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium (NPK) fertilizer and assess its effects on nutrient release and lettuce performance. Biochar was produced by pyrolysis at 400 °C and loaded with NPK fertilizer. The BC/NPK composite was characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), nutrient-release behavior was evaluated in deionized water and soil. The cumulative nutrient release reached 64% in deionized water and 91% in soil. Under greenhouse conditions, BC/NPK applied at 100% and 75% NPK rates increased lettuce fresh weight, plant height and leaf number to 163.33 and 183.67 g, 23.00 and 23.67 cm, 34 and 36, respectively. Moreover, BC/NPK reduced nitrate accumulation in lettuce leaves, with nitrate concentrations decreasing in outer leaves to 10 and 0.73 mg g−1 and in inner leaves to 2 and 1.33 mg g−1 at the 100% and 75% rates, respectively. These findings demonstrate that olive pomace-derived BC/NPK is a promising slow-release fertilizer capable of improving crop performance while supporting sustainable nutrient management and agricultural waste valorization.
Global population growth has increased the demand for food production and, therefore, for higher crop yields, especially for soybean, which is one of the most cost-effective and affordable sources of high-quality protein for animal and human nutrition. This frequently leads to an overuse of traditional chemical insecticides to maximize yields, thereby triggering negative side effects. However, both consumers and governments around the world demand a reduction in chemical insecticides in agriculture. To address this challenge, pest control must be guided by proper adoption of economic thresholds (ETs), which indicate the most appropriate time to initiate control in the crop. Despite the well-documented science behind ETs, farmers have questioned the adoption and reliability in a search for higher production, highlighting the importance of reviewing this topic. Thus, based on the available literature, the role of ETs in optimizing insecticide application in soybean production around the world is herein discussed, highlighting the importance of their adoption to mitigate the overuse of chemicals by emphasizing examples from the major world soybean producers (Brazil, the United States of America, Argentina, and China). In conclusion, this review highlights the importance of changing farmers’ perception that using more insecticide is necessary to guarantee higher yields. On the contrary, only by the adoption of ETs within Integrated Pest Management is it possible to obtain better pest management and, consequently, reduce yield loss. Despite some limitations related to their simplicity and risks of adoption, the use of ETs improves soybean sustainability and farmers’ profits while benefiting the agroecosystem. For future directions, their complexity should increase to more realistically represent agroecosystems; in addition, tools should be developed (computer programs and smartphone apps using, for instance, artificial intelligence) to translate this complexity into easy-to-adopt ETs.
Spotted-wing Drosophila (Drosophila suzukii), an economically important invasive but widely distributed pest, has developed resistance to multiple insecticide classes, threatening its management in commercial soft fruit production. This study evaluated the synergism of piperonyl butoxide (PBO) with zeta-cypermethrin in two field-collected resistant California populations and a susceptible population with bioassays. Female flies from the two resistant populations exhibited 55-fold and 25-fold resistance, respectively, compared to the susceptible population. PBO co-application significantly enhanced insecticide efficacy in both resistant populations, with synergism ratios of 6.51 and 4.06. However, complete susceptibility at label rates of the insecticide was not restored, indicating that other resistance mechanisms may also be present in these populations. PBO–pyrethroid combinations show promise for improving field efficacy against resistant populations, though they should be integrated with insecticide rotation and other integrated pest management tactics for sustainable resistance management.
Silicate rocks represent alternative K sources when finely ground, reducing production costs and dependence on imported fertilizers. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of potassium (K) dose, application timing, and fertilizer sources on the concentrations and accumulation of K, silicon (Si), and sodium (Na) in maize diagnostic leaves, straw, and grains under a no-tillage system in Savanna. The soil was classified as Typic Haplustox (Oxisol). The experiment followed a randomized block design in a 2 × 4 × 3 factorial scheme, with two application times (30 days before sowing soybean and at sowing soybean), four K2O rates (0, 40, 80, and 120 kg ha−1), and three sources (KCl, Potasil, and Ekosil). K fertilization was applied by broadcasting without incorporation, before the preceding crop. Potasil provided a higher foliar Si concentration, and Si accumulation in grain and straw increased with the increment of K fertilization using the Potasil. Early fertilization promoted greater K accumulation in maize straw. For grain K accumulation, moderate K2O doses favor greater accumulation, with Ekosil and Potasil showing superior results compared to KCl. There was less sodium accumulation in the grains with Ekosil compared to KCl. Agronomic efficiency is maximized at 40 kg ha−1 of K2O, with Ekosil showing the best performance for maize crop. These findings indicate that alternative K sources, applied at optimized rates, improve crop nutrition and promote sustainability in soybean–maize crop rotation.
Salicylic acid (SA) is a key regulator of plant immunity and contributes to defence against Plasmodiophora brassicae, the causal agent of clubroot disease in canola (Brassica napus) and other crucifers. Exogenous SA applications have reduced clubroot severity in some Brassica pathosystems, yet the effectiveness of foliar SA treatment against the predominant resistance-breaking pathotype 3A in western Canada remains unclear. This study evaluated the effects of weekly foliar applications of 0, 1, 5, or 10 mM SA on clubroot development in two B. napus var. napobrassica cultivars under greenhouse and growth chamber conditions. Plants inoculated with pathotype 3A were assessed for disease severity, pathogen resting spore load, plant height, and transcript accumulation of SA-responsive genes. Overall, SA treatments resulted in modest reductions in disease severity and resting spore concentrations; however, treatment effects did not reach statistical significance in most cases. Collectively, foliar SA applications provided limited suppression of clubroot caused by pathotype 3A. Further optimization of SA concentration, timing, and delivery, particularly when targeting the root zone, may be required before SA can be considered a complementary tool in integrated clubroot management.
In Mexico, pecan (Caria illinoienensis Wangenh K. Koch) cultivation is considered a primary agricultural activity of great importance, particularly in the state of Chihuahua. Due to the region’s climatic conditions, the soils used for this crop present several limitations that may restrict their agricultural use, as they often exhibit low or null fertility, classifying them as marginal soils. However, these soils can be rehabilitated through appropriate management practices. Among the main recovery strategies are the application of mineral and organic amendments and the use of plant-growth-promoting microorganisms, all of which are considered environmentally friendly alternatives. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify the types of mineral and organic amendments suitable for the recovery of marginal soils in the agronomic management of pecan cultivation. This study was conducted in the San Cristóbal pecan orchard, located in the municipality of Jiménez, Chihuahua, using a 56 factorial design, reduced to 25 treatments through the Taguchi L25 method. Statistical analysis was performed using response surface methodology, and the evaluated parameters included basic, physical, fertility, and cation-exchange properties of the soil. The results showed that zeolite (19.30 t ha−1) and calcium carbonate (12.70 t ha−1) were amendments that produced the greatest effect on the evaluated parameters. The use of these amendments can significantly complement annual fertilization programs, contributing to meeting the crop’s nutritional demands under a sustainable management approach for pecan production.
The growing demand for food production has increased the pressure on soil and fertilizer use, often leading to nutrient losses, soil degradation, and environmental pollution. Green chemistry offers practical solutions to these challenges by encouraging cleaner, safer, and more efficient ways of producing and using fertilizers. This review summarizes recent advances in multi-nutrient sustainable fertilizers developed through green chemistry principles, including renewable raw materials, low-toxicity synthesis methods, and environmentally friendly delivery systems. Different approaches, such as controlled-release carriers, nano-enabled formulations, chelated nutrients, and bio-based coatings, are discussed with a focus on how they reduce nutrient losses and improve soil and plant health. The review also highlights the benefits and limitations of these technologies, gaps in current research, and the need for long-term field studies to assess their safety and effectiveness. Overall, green chemistry-guided fertilizer development shows strong potential to support sustainable agriculture by improving nutrient efficiency while reducing environmental impacts.
Although a pulse-width modulation (PWM) technique controls nozzle flow rate with minimal pressure variation, its effects on droplet size distribution and flow regulation when combined with low-drift nozzle designs are still not well documented. Therefore, the objective of this research was to investigate the effects of PWM on droplet size distribution and flow rate of low-drift nozzles used in pesticide application systems. Experiments were conducted under controlled laboratory conditions to evaluate eight flat-fan nozzles with different designs to increase spray droplet sizes. Each nozzle was coupled with a PWM valve, and tested at duty cycles (DUC) from 20% to 100% in 20% increments, and operating pressures of 276 and 414 kPa. Droplet size distribution was determined using a laser diffraction technique, and nozzle flow rate was evaluated to assess the effects of DUC on spray characteristics. PWM operation showed a strong linear relationship between DUC and flow rate (R2 ≥ 0.99). In addition, measured flow rates showed good agreement with theoretical values at DUCs ≥ 60%, whereas substantial deviations were observed at lower DUCs. The effects of DUC on droplet size characteristics varied by nozzle design, pressure, and the parameter evaluated. Low DUCs tended to increase droplet size heterogeneity and the proportion of drift-prone droplets (<150 µm), although these effects were dependent on nozzle type and operating pressure and were not observed consistently across all nozzles. Overall, excessively low DUCs may compromise flow accuracy and spray quality in PWM systems.
Alkaloids are structurally diverse, nitrogen-containing plant secondary metabolites with well-documented insecticidal activity. This review examines alkaloid-based insecticides, focusing on their chemical diversity, biosynthetic origins, plant distribution, and physicochemical properties relevant to pest control on farms. The principal molecular targets and modes of action are discussed, including interactions with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, acetylcholinesterase, ryanodine receptors, and GABAergic signaling. Another focus is key metabolic enzymes, together with their activity spectra against major agricultural pests. Recent advances in rational structural modification, supported by crystallographic data, computational modeling, and structure–activity relationship studies, are highlighted as strategies to enhance the potency, selectivity, and stability of these compounds. Toxicological profiles, food residue behavior, analytical challenges, and regulatory considerations are critically assessed, emphasizing that natural origin does not equate to inherent safety. The review further evaluates the role of alkaloid-based insecticides within integrated pest management systems and identifies key research gaps related to environmental safety, non-target effects, and regulatory development and harmonization. It concludes that alkaloids are positioned as potentially valuable tools for sustainable agriculture when deployed within science-based regulatory frameworks and integrated control strategies.
Although information on insecticide toxicity on pests abounds, this is limited on non-target organisms like ants in cocoa production systems. This study determined the toxicity of insecticides (containing acetamiprid 40 g L−1 EW, acetamiprid 64 g L−1 + emamectin benzoate 48 g L−1 EC, acetamiprid 20 g L−1 + lambda-cyhalothrin 15 g L−1 SC, emamectin benzoate 5% WDG and pyrethrins 50 g L−1 EW) used against cocoa pests on non-target predatory ants (Crematogaster africana, Oecophylla longinoda and Pheidole megacephala) under laboratory (using filter-paper method) and field conditions to identify less harmful products for use in the cropping system. Ant knockdown and mortality varied significantly among insecticides at their recommended rates, with emamectin benzoate being the least toxic and acetamiprid + lambda-cyhalothrin the most toxic. LC95s varied significantly, with emamectin benzoate having the highest predator safety index, while pyrethrins had the lowest. Generally, selectivity towards O. longinoda was higher than that towards the other ants. In the field, emamectin benzoate had the least acute adverse effect on ant abundance. Ant population generally rebounded to pre-treatment levels at 1 month after the last insecticide application. The study indicates differential toxicity and identifies ant-compatible insecticide options contingent on the autochthonous ant composition.
Protecting peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) from weed interference is important for optimizing yield in Ghana and other West African countries. Hand removal is the main approach for controlling weeds in this region of the world. Herbicides are an alternative to hand weeding. Information on the balance between herbicides and hand labor required to control weeds is limited. To address this, research was conducted to determine weed biomass, peanut yield, time required to remove weeds by hand and apply herbicides, and financial return when metolachlor was applied immediately after seeding (preemergence), imazethapyr was applied 4 weeks after seeding (postemergence), and both herbicides were applied either with or without hand weeding. Controls without weed management and hand removal of weeds without herbicides were included. Weed biomass was the lowest and peanut yield the highest when herbicides and hand weeding were included and when hand weeding was performed twice without herbicides. Herbicides were only less effective than combinations of herbicides and hand weeding. For weed management approaches that resulted in the greatest financial return, the time required for weeding was reduced from 44.5 workdays/ha for hand weeding twice to 14.1, 17.5, and 16.0 workdays/ha for preemergence herbicide plus hand weeding, postemergence herbicide plus hand weeding, and both herbicide timings plus hand weeding, respectively. These results indicate that the combination of preemergence and postemergence herbicides and the combination of herbicide and hand weeding protect peanut yield as well as hand weeding twice. Although herbicides resulted in less labor allocated for weed management, proper stewardship of herbicide use is needed to protect farm workers and decrease potential negative impact on the environment and reduce risk from herbicide residues in peanut-based foods to consumers.
Mesotrione is a herbicide used in field crops to control grass and broadleaf weeds worldwide. For grain crops such as maize, mesotrione is recommended for a waiting period of up to 24 months before planting. This research builds on earlier investigations that explored the influence of brassinosteroids on soybean and other legume species. Hence, the study aimed to determine the effects of mesotrione residues on morpho-physiological and yield parameters of a brassinosteroid-treated soya bean. The experiment was a pot trial, laid out in a completely randomized block design, arranged in a 4 × 2 factorial design. Mesotrione was applied at concentrations of 1.6 µg.ai kg−1 soil, equivalent to 45 days after application (DAA), 0.05 µg.ai kg−1 soil (90 DAA), and 0.0016 µg.ai kg−1 soil (135 DAA), with untreated plants as the control. With increasing concentration, symptoms ranged from bleaching and necrosis to higher concentrations. Furthermore, findings in this study suggest that the combination of mesotrione (at 0.0016 µg.ai kg−1) and recommended application rate of brassinosteroid plays an important role in improving nutrient uptake, resulting in increased plant growth, physiology, and yield. It could be concluded from the measured and visually observed parameters that mesotrione beyond 0.0016 µg.ai kg−1 concentration resulted in negative effects on the plant growth, physiology, and yield; thus, a mitigating strategy using eco-organic production systems with different levels of brassinosteroids to improve soya bean treated with mesotrione should be prioritized as a future study.
Phytopathogenic fungi cause major agricultural losses worldwide. Their control relies largely on synthetic fungicides, which raise concerns related to environmental impact, resistance development, and human health. Botanical extracts represent a promising, sustainable alternative, and members of the Brassicaceae family are recognized as rich sources of antifungal metabolites. In this study, the antifungal activity of ethanol extracts from Brassica napus and Capsella bursa-pastoris was evaluated against Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum acutatum, and Fusarium oxysporum, which are major phytopathogens widely recognized for causing significant diseases in diverse commercial crops worldwide. Antifungal effects on mycelial radial growth and conidial production were assessed in vitro using the amended culture medium assay. Extracts were chemically characterized by LC-DAD-ESI-MS, and a single-Y orthogonal partial least squares (OPLS) analysis was applied to integrate chemical and bioactivity data to identify metabolites associated with antifungal activity. Test botanical extracts showed organ- and pathogen-dependent antifungal activity. B. napus was more active, as seeds reduced B. cinerea growth, and roots strongly suppressed conidiation and inhibited F. oxysporum. In contrast, C. bursa-pastoris was less effective, with only the flower and fruit extracts causing modest reductions in F. oxysporum, while the other extracts were largely inactive. Fourteen metabolites were tentatively identified based on UV-Vis and mass spectral data. Among them, one flavanol and two indole-containing compounds were statistically correlated with antifungal activity, were subsequently isolated, and were structurally confirmed by NMR spectroscopy. These compounds (1–3) exhibited reasonable antifungal activity (IC50 < 40 µM). The integrative covariate-based metabolic profiling approach proved operative for identifying bioactive constituents in the test botanical extracts, supporting the potential of Brassicaceae-derived extracts and their metabolites as natural antifungal agents.
Pharmaceuticals are increasingly recognized as emerging contaminants with potential impacts on agroecosystems. Among these, antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin (CPX) persist in wastewater and may enter agricultural soils through irrigation or fertilization practices, yet their effects on crop plants remain poorly understood. This study evaluated the phytotoxic effects of ciprofloxacin on early growth and photosynthetic pigment content in purple maize (Zea mays L.), a variety of nutritional and cultural importance. Seeds were germinated in an agar-based medium (0.5%) and exposed to three concentrations of ciprofloxacin (3, 10, and 30 mg·L−1) for seven days under controlled conditions. Germination percentage, seedling fresh weight, organ length (root, stem, and leaf), and photosynthetic pigment concentrations (chlorophylls a and b, and carotenoids) were determined. Ciprofloxacin exposure resulted in dose-dependent reductions in germination (from 83% at 3 mg·L−1 to 50% at 30 mg·L−1) and root elongation, while stem length remained unaffected. Chlorophyll content decreased with increasing ciprofloxacin concentration, with the lowest values observed at 30 mg·L−1, while carotenoid levels remained stable, with no statistically significant differences observed. Although ciprofloxacin is typically detected in environmental matrices at ng–µg L−1 levels, higher concentrations may occur in localized contamination hotspots; ciprofloxacin affected early developmental and physiological processes in maize under these elevated exposure conditions. These findings highlight the importance of integrating phytotoxicity assessments into agricultural ecopharmacovigilance strategies and contribute to understanding the risks associated with pharmaceutical contamination in crop production systems.
This study investigates the decomposition kinetics and microplastic residue formation of the polymer-coated controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs) LN40 and Eco-LN40 under simulated photodegradation conditions. Eco-LN40, containing TiO2 as a photocatalyst, achieved complete decomposition (100 ± 2%) after 60 days of xenon-arc irradiation (p < 0.05), whereas LN40 achieved only 14–31% decomposition. Analytical characterization using TED-GC/MS, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy confirmed that polyethylene (PE) signals completely disappeared in Eco-LN40 but persisted in LN40, indicating that microplastics did not form and that there was total oxidation into CO2 and H2O. SEM–EDS revealed Ti enrichment and surface fragmentation consistent with photoinduced radical oxidation. This study provides qualitative and mechanistic evidence that TiO-catalyzed photodegradation can eliminate polymer residues, mitigate the risk of microplastic contamination in agricultural soils, and support carbon-neutral fertilizer technologies.
The foliar pathogens of wheat, particularly Zymoseptoria tritici and Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, represent a significant threat to yield. We used a SEIR (Susceptible–Exposed–Infected–Removed) model to quantify epidemic dynamics based on different fungicide application strategies, focusing on the daily dynamic growth rate r(t) (net infection increase) and the removal rate γ(t) (loss infectious tissue) after BBCH 37. In Scenario A (treatment of seed with Systiva®), the r(t) of Z. tritici was positive only during the early phase of the epidemic, followed by progressive suppression over time, while the r(t) for P. tritici-repentis remained negative throughout. Scenario B (seed treatment combined with foliar propiconazole) resulted in uniformly negative r(t) values for both pathogens, indicating stronger and sustained suppression. These findings highlight the practical utility of epidemic growth rate modeling for evaluating fungicide strategies and support integrated seed + foliar applications as a robust approach to disease management in wheat.
The one health approach recognizes the interconnection between human, animal, and environmental health, emphasizing that human health should never be threatened in the pursuit of agricultural productivity. Indeed, within agricultural systems, this approach is particularly relevant, as the overuse of chemical inputs and the mismanagement of organic wastes can directly threaten human health. Overuse of chemical inputs can result in various health disturbances and contribute to the development of acute or chronic human diseases. Likewise, organic wastes constitute potential human health risks due to the presence of pathogens in these wastes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Despite increasing research, many studies often lack integrated risk assessments of agrochemicals and organic waste within a “One Health” framework, leaving gaps in practical guidance for safe agricultural management. This review was conducted to address these gaps and answer the following questions: What are the human health risks associated with agrochemicals and mismanaged organic wastes? How can composting/compost mitigate these risks and support sustainable agricultural production? It examines the role of composting in managing organic wastes, producing high-quality compost, and reducing exposure to hazardous chemicals and pathogens. Furthermore, it outlines key characteristics of compost required to ensure safety for humans, plants, soil, and ecosystems. By integrating evidence on human health and crop productivity, this review provides insights for safe, sustainable agricultural practices within a unified One Health framework.
This study provides a comprehensive long-term assessment of dithiocarbamate (DTC) fungicide residues in foods consumed in Brazil, analyzing nearly two decades of official monitoring data from the Pesticide Residue Analysis Program (PARA/ANVISA) from 2001 to 2023. By integrating fragmented annual reports into a single temporal framework, this study offers a novel evaluation of detection frequencies, residue levels, and regulatory compliance over time. Of the 21,274 samples analyzed, 23.90% contained residues of these fungicides. Papaya showed the highest detection frequency (92.59%) in 2005, while apple showed the highest average percentage of detections (51.68%). Lettuce showed the highest residual levels (10.05 mg kg−1) in samples from the 2017–2018 cycle, despite the lack of authorization for the use of these products in this crop. Strawberries and carrots showed concentrations above the maximum residue limit (MRL), with excesses. Residues of unauthorized pesticides were also detected in crops such as guava, pineapple, and sweet potato. Temporal correlations between detections and residues indicated significant variations among the foods evaluated, with potatoes, strawberries, and lettuce showing the highest residual levels. An overall declining trend in detections and residue concentrations was observed throughout the analyzed period, potentially reflecting improvements in regulatory oversight, agricultural practices, and analytical sensitivity over time. From a public health perspective, the persistence of elevated residues and unauthorized uses highlights the need for continuous surveillance, strengthened enforcement, and risk communication strategies to ensure food safety and consumer protection.
The use of proteolytic enzymes in association with entomopathogenic fungi offers a promising alternative for improving the biological control of insect pests. This study evaluated the compatibility between Beauveria bassiana and papain and the effectiveness of their combined application in controlling Tenebrio molitor. Conidial viability in the presence of papain was monitored for 48 h and showed a reduction in germination from 100% to approximately 70%, without detrimental effects on fungal performance. Papain activity remained stable up to 12 h, declining afterward, indicating biochemical compatibility. Bioassays revealed significant differences among treatments (p < 0.01). In larvae, mortality ranged from 5.18 ± 0.19% in the control to 49.62 ± 2.00% with papain, 62.24 ± 0.58% with conidia, and 89.71 ± 1.06% in the combined treatment; papain and conidia alone did not differ statistically. In pupae, mortality reached 2.20 ± 0.00% in the control, 47.38 ± 0.69% with papain, 63.69 ± 0.69% with conidia, and 85.91 ± 0.84% with the combination, with all treatments differing significantly. Fungal reisolation confirmed typical B. bassiana development. Overall, the results show that papain does not compromise fungal viability and that its combination with B. bassiana enhances entomopathogenic activity, supporting its potential for integrated pest management.
