Abstract Subclinical depression among peacekeeping veterans remains understudied despite its prevalence and potential to progress to major depression. This study examined associations between deployment-related traumatic stressors and subclinical depressive symptoms in 2,258 Finnish peacekeeping veterans. Subclinical depression was measured using the Depression Scale (DEPS) and traumatic stressor exposure via a 16-item questionnaire. Frequent traumatic stressor exposure was associated with an increased risk of subclinical depression, with 5 out of 16 stressors showing significant associations. The strongest predictor was feeling powerless to help sufficiently within one’s role as peacekeeper, suggesting moral injury significantly contributes to the development of subclinical depression. These results highlight the importance of developing post-deployment screening to detect non-danger-based stressors and subclinical conditions that carry the risk of progressing into severe mental health disorders.
Abstract Hybrid threats, cyberattacks and geopolitical interference are increasingly challenging NATO’s southeastern flank. Despite this, resilience research tends to focus more on the alliance’s northern and eastern areas. The Western Balkans, which are highly vulnerable to hybrid pressure and strategically located along the Mediterranean–Central Europe corridor, often receive insufficient attention. This article introduces an integrated framework that combines Deterrence Theory, Resilience Theory and Regional Security Complex Theory (RSCT) to demonstrate how small countries such as Albania and Kosovo strengthen NATO’s resilience, even with limited military capabilities. By comparing governance, cyber resilience and strategic position, it highlights how these countries serve as resilience boosters within NATO’s southeastern region. The study identifies a notable gap in current research. It emphasises that understanding how small states in the Western Balkans build resilience is crucial to improving NATO’s deterrence and combating hybrid threats. It ends with a conceptual model of small-state strategic resilience that can be applied both locally and across the broader alliance.
Abstract The commercialisation of space has shifted military functions from sovereign assets to privately operated satellite systems. Drawing on the literature on military outsourcing, this article examines the implications of this transition for contemporary warfare, integrating a literature review with 15 expert interviews. Our analysis shows that commercial satellite services provide armed forces with rapid access to advanced capabilities, cost-efficient scalability and technological innovation that would be difficult to generate through the procurement of state-owned systems. At the same time, reliance on private actors introduces multidimensional vulnerabilities, including loss of operational control, exposure to political and regulatory constraints, technical fragility and legal ambiguity inherent in dual-use space infrastructure. To structure these trade-offs, the article develops a framework based on mission criticality and the degree of control retained by the armed forces, which yields three configurations: predominantly commercial, hybrid and sovereign. Acceptable dependence, the analysis shows, turns on these two dimensions rather than on cost or market alignment. It also indicates that commercial space provision operates through the same mechanisms as commercial military services more broadly, distinguished by its setting rather than its logic.
Abstract What makes a successful military operation? For military planners, this question has been, and still is, one of the most perplexing problems a military organisation can be confronted with. The scientific research groups in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) have attempted to construct a model on how to adopt the most optimal approach to command and control in military operations regardless of force composition and mission type. The concept is called Command and Control Agility or C2 Agility for short. The purpose is by using best practices to design a universal effective concept for C2 in military operations. This paper will use 43 case studies from World War II (WWII) selected from a set of criteria that will ensure homogenous case selection, and investigate the significance of C2 Agility for a successful outcome using statistical analysis. WWII is relevant because during the current Russo-Ukrainian war the question of C2 approach in a high-intensity warfare scenario against a near-peer opponent has again become highly relevant for the militaries of NATO.
Militaries worldwide are increasingly relying on social media to address recruitment challenges, particularly in attracting women to their ranks. This study compares the portrayal of female soldiers and military life in YouTube Shorts from the U.S. Army and the German Bundeswehr. It analyses how these militaries depict female soldiers in their recruitment efforts and the impact of these portrayals in reinforcing or challenging the male-dominated image of military service. Grounded in post-constructivist feminist theory, this study argues that cultural and historical differences between the U.S. and Germany shape the ways in which women are portrayed in these videos. Using a multimodal discourse analytical approach, the findings show that the U.S. Army focuses on diversity, self-empowerment and collective military pride, while the Bundeswehr emphasises civilian duties and professionalism. Both militaries avoid depictions of violence, promoting military service as a path of personal growth and adventure. This study contributes to the study of gender and military recruitment by showing how differing cultural contexts influence the representation of women in military service. It calls for further research into how these portrayals affect recruitment outcomes and the real-life experiences of female soldiers.
