Desertification risk can build when vegetation repeatedly fails to recover before the next drought, before persistent decline becomes detectable. We integrated MODIS NDVI/EVI, ERA5-Land hydroclimate, land-system stratification, recurrence censoring, and climate-adjusted NPP trends across Turkmenistan during 2001-2024. The analysis included 4,116 grid cells and 35,368 vegetation-effective drought events. Vegetation recovered in 59.9% of natural events and 71.0% of irrigated-oasis events. A 1-SD larger vegetation deficit during the preceding three years increased the odds of incomplete recovery at the next drought (OR 1.057, 95% CI 1.029-1.086) and reduced the monthly recovery hazard (HR 0.937, 95% CI 0.920-0.954). The absolute probability change was modest, and a coverage-restricted NPP subset showed the same direction. Cell-balanced incomplete recovery increased from 19.9% in 2001-2008 to 32.3% in 2009-2016 and 60.5% in 2017-2024, although the audited late-record interval contributed to the final rise. Rule-based zoning identified 1,555 non-oasis cells with recurrent recovery failure. Risk prevalence reached 62.5% in the western Caspian-Balkan sector and 56.5% along the eastern Amu Darya, compared with 20.3% in the central Karakum. Fifty-one compound candidates, 41 in the west, had negative adjusted NDVI, EVI, and NPP slopes; none met the strict three-trend FDR criterion, so they are field-validation priorities rather than confirmed degradation. The fixed oasis footprint greened overall, but late-period recovery interruption increased. The framework identifies constrained recovery resilience as the dominant satellite-observed risk expression, but has not yet been validated against independent field plots or existing land-degradation products.

Desertification is a major environmental challenge affecting ecological security,regional development,and human well-being in arid and semi-arid regions worldwide.Under the combined influences of climate change and human activities,land degradation processes have become increasingly complex and uncertain.In China,desertification control has gradually evolved from project-based interventions toward systematic governance.Although the Three-North Shelterbelt Program has achieved remarkable success in reducing sand hazards and improving ecological conditions,long-term challenges remain,including the complexity of aeolian processes,rigid water-resource constraints,and the sustainability of ecological engineering.These challenges highlight the need for a new governance paradigm capable of integrating ecological restoration,resource management,and regional development. This study aims to establish a scientific framework for holistic desertification control based on systems thinking and integrated governance.The objectives are to clarify the theoretical foundations of holistic desertification control,develop a conceptual framework centered on the"Three Comprehensives and Two Viabilities",and propose implementation pathways for advancing high-quality desertification control in China. Drawing upon theories from geography,ecology,hydrology,aeolian science,and complex systems science,this study synthesizes existing knowledge,policy requirements,and practical experiences from desertification control in China.Through theoretical analysis and conceptual framework construction,the study integrates natural processes,resource constraints,ecological functions,geographical units,and socio-economic factors into a unified governance framework. The results indicate that holistic desertification control is supported by five theoretical foundations.First,aeolian processes are characterized by multi-factor interactions,nonlinear dynamics,and feedback mechanisms among wind,sediment transport,landforms,vegetation,and human activities.Second,water resources constitute the fundamental constraint on ecological restoration in arid regions,where limited availability and uneven spatial-temporal distribution determine the scale and sustainability of management activities.Third,ecosystem stability provides the ecological basis for long-term restoration effectiveness through maintaining structural integrity,functional continuity,and resilience to disturbances.Fourth,the integrity of geographical units emphasizes the interconnected nature of mountains,oases,rivers,and deserts and highlights the importance of governance based on complete geographical and hydrological systems.Fifth,the coordination of human-environment relationships ensures that ecological restoration can be sustained through the integration of environmental protection,livelihoods,and regional development. Holistic desertification control provides a systematic framework for addressing the growing complexity of desertification governance in arid regions.By integrating ecological processes,water-resource constraints,geographical integrity,ecosystem stability,and human-environment interactions,the proposed framework promotes coordinated governance across multiple elements,processes,and spatial units while ensuring sustainability and operational viability.It offers both theoretical support and practical guidance for advancing the Three-North Project and achieving sustainable desertification control in China.

Salt crusts formed on inland arid playas are an important global source of saline dust, posing severe risks to ecosystem stability and human health. Understanding salt crust dynamics and driving factors is essential for assessing saline dust emissions and ecological risks. The Ebinur Lake Basin (ELB) is a significant source of saline dust in northwest China and features extensive salt crusts. However, the spatiotemporal evolution of salt crusts has not been well quantified due to the lack of consistent long-term observations. In this study, an improved nonlinear spectral unmixing model based on ensemble tree models is developed to estimate salt crust coverage in the ELB spanning 2005-2025. The model performs robustly (R2 = 0.769) for medium-to-high coverage salt crusts (MHSCs; fractional cover >= 0.3). From 2005 to 2025, the MHSC area in the ELB increased with interannual fluctuations, peaking at 377.8 km2 in 2021-approximately 5.03 times the 2005-2009 mean. Spatially, the MHSCs were categorized into four types: lake-basin, desert, fluvial-depressional and anthropogenic. Among these, the lake-basin type covered the largest area and exhibited the strongest variability, accounting for most of the interannual fluctuations in MHSC area. Analysis of the driving factors indicates that lake area, drought conditions, and human activities were the primary drivers of the MHSC changes, with drought having a distinct lagged effect. This study estimates the long-term spatiotemporal dynamics of the MHSCs in the ELB and provides a scientific basis for the ecological risk assessment and the management of saline dust hazards in arid and semiarid regions.

China’s assistance with Africa’s Great Green Wall offers a critical test case for its eco-developmental approach to combating desertification. Unlike Western-backed conservation models, which focus primarily on ecological restoration, China’s strategy—refined through its Three North Shelterbelt Program—focuses on eco-developmentalism, integrating tree planting with large-scale infrastructure, renewable energy, and livelihood transformation through a broad developmental vision. Comparing longstanding efforts in Senegal with more recent Chinese-backed partnerships in Mauritania, Ethiopia, and Nigeria, we assess the transferability of China’s approach. While technologies like solar-powered irrigation and sand-fixation show promise, their implementation in Africa faces logistical and governance challenges. More fundamentally, the initiative exposes a philosophical divide: Africa’s restoration-focused ambitions versus China’s eco-developmental infrastructure-led model. This tension reflects broader debates about whether and how arid lands should be “restored” or “developed.” We reflect on hybrid approaches that bridge these extremes, while highlighting gaps between China’s technocratic solutions and African institutional realities.

Barchan dunes migrate downstream while largely preserving their morphology, a process thought to result from a dynamic balance between sediment influx and outflux. However, direct field evidence and the governing mechanism of this balance remain limited. Here we combine field observations and numerical simulations to examine an isolated barchan dune under a bidirectional wind regime. We show that steady-state migration is sustained when sediment entering the windward slope is balanced by losses from the horns and leeward slope. We introduce a characteristic length, L0.5flux, defined as the location where cumulative influx reaches half of the total, which captures internal flux redistribution and serves as a diagnostic indicator of migration. Under unidirectional winds, L0.5flux remains stable, reflecting equilibrium, while under bidirectional winds it shifts upwind, reducing migration rates. These results establish sediment flux balance as the mechanism underlying steady-state migration and provide a unified framework for barchan morphodynamics.

Vegetation restoration potential (VRP) assessment is an important aspect and foundation of ecological restoration projects. Neglecting the carrying capacity of the natural environment in the formulation and implementation of ecological restoration projects often leads to diminished effectiveness or even environmental damage. Existing models for VRP either overly rely on empirical knowledge, resulting in low efficiency and reproducibility, or fail to consider the nonlinear relationship between the natural environment and vegetation cover, leading to low accuracy in assessment results. Building upon existing models, this study proposes a new Vegetation Restoration Potential Mapping (VRPM) model based on a dual-variable discretization method for habitat similarity division and machine learning. Focused on Central Asia as the research area, the study evaluates the vegetation restoration potential of the region and validates the model. The results demonstrate that this model efficiently produces high-resolution and high-precision vegetation restoration potential maps. The average VRP in Central Asia is relatively low, around 36%, with most areas already having vegetation cover close to or reaching their restoration potential The regions with a higher degree of unrealized vegetation restoration potential (VRPU) are mainly distributed near human settlements, while VRPU is negative in some areas around the desert-oasis boundaries and artificial structures in the desert. The findings of this research demonstrate that the model can provide a basis for planning and implementing ecological restoration projects, thereby aiding in the health and sustainable development of ecosystems in arid regions.

Wind is the primary driving factor of sand transport and shapes diverse landscapes. Owing to the inherent intermittency and pulsation of winds, existing models cannot accurately predict sand fluxes as a function of winds. When wind speed is below the fluid threshold, turbulent kinetic energy dominates sand transport, preventing accurate predictions of sand flux. This study proposes a term derived from wind turbulent kinetic energy to revise the classical wind-blown sand transport models. We combined both low- and high-frequency field measurements of wind in the revised model and found that the new model not only overcomes the inaccuracies in predicting sand fluxes caused by low-frequency winds but also avoids the flux uncertainties associated with excessive turbulent pulsation caused by high-frequency winds. This newly developed model reduced biases in sand flux predictions under low-frequency wind speeds. Furthermore, in terms of turbulent pulsation, the optimal wind sampling frequency for accurately predicting sand fluxes over long timescales was also determined. However, the current model proposed the initial assumptions and local validation, and its applicability requires more validation.

Achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15.3 and attaining Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) is crucial for ensuring the future sustainable development of the conventional lake Chad basin (CLCB). This study conducted a thorough assessment of land degradation in the CLCB utilizing three key indicators: land productivity, land cover, and soil organic carbon (SOC), as outlined in the SDG 15.3.1 Good Practice Guidance (GPG). Furthermore, correlation analysis and residual trend analysis were employed to analyze the driving factors behind land degradation in the CLCB. The results of three sub-indicators indicate that from 2001 to 2020, land productivity degradation is primarily concentrated in the southern CLCB, including the Vina River Basin and the upper reaches of the Logone River. The improved areas of land cover exceed the degraded areas. Regarding SOC, the improved areas are mainly distributed in strips at the junctions of grasslands and bare lands. Overall, the CLCB has not achieved LDN, with nearly 2.07 x 105 km2 (16.06 %) of degraded land, 1.01 x 106 km2 (78.46 %) of stable land, and 7.05 x 104 km2 (5.48 %) of improved land. Human activities lead to most land degradation in the CLCB, while temperature is the primary driver for land improvement in most Basin-Country Units (BCUs). Our findings may provide valuable guidance and serve as a reference for arid basins to continue implementing rigorous ecological monitoring and working towards achieving LDN.

>The Taklimakan Desert, located in the heart of central Asia, covers approximately 330 000 km 2 , making it China's largest desert and the world's second-largest shifting desert（Dong et al., 2024）. With an average annual precipitation of less than 100 mm and evaporation rates ranging from 2 000 to 3 000 mm（Yang et al., 2020）, it is recognized as one of the driest regions on Earth, often referred to as the “sea of death”.

The physicochemical characteristics of dustfall particles are essential for the in-depth understanding on the aerodynamic processes of aeolian dust and its environmental effects. In this study, we conducted continuous high-frequency sampling of atmospheric dustfall in the Taklimakan hinterland during spring 2022, analyzing particle micromorphology, size distribution, mineral composition, deposition fluxes, and vertical dust characteristics. The results showed that the dustfall particles sampled in the Taklimakan hinterland were mostly microaggregates, angular, and subrounded based on the statistical analysis of the Focused Ion Beam Scanning Electron Microscope (FIB-SEM). As determined by the Laser Diffraction Particle Size Analyzer (LDPSA), the dustfall particles were predominately coarse particles, with particles between 20 mu m and 80 mu m accounting for 83.73 % of the total particle number. Volume proportion of dustfall particles with particle size of 60-150 mu m was 72.41 %. Mineralogical analysis of dustfall particles using the Intelligent Scanning Electron Microscope Environmental Particle Analysis System (IntelliSEM EPAS) revealed that calcite was the dominant component (31.15 %), followed by quartz (18.52 %), chlorite (11.84 %), kaolinite (8.11 %), smectite (6.28 %), and illite (5.25 %). Halite was identified as the primary salt component, making up 9.52 % of detected particles. Vertical dust profiles derived by the ground-based Mie-scattering lidar indicated that large amounts of irregular dust floated in the tropospheric atmosphere over the Taklimakan Desert, causing a high depolarization ratio of more than 0.6 within 5 km of the surface. These dust aerosols suspended in the upper air with long periods were attributed to the frequent windblown dust weather over the Tarim Basin in spring, resulting in high ambient particulate concentration and dust deposition.

The Aralkum Desert, arising from the significant reduction of the Aral Sea since the 1960s, is recognized as a prominent contributor to salt-dust storms in Central Asia. This study used SBAS-InSAR technology to monitor ground deformation from wind erosion in the southern Aralkum Desert, analyzing windblown sediment subsidence and accumulation. The sensitivity of wind erosion to various influencing factors was further analyzed using the Geodetector model. Results indicate a negative correlation between wind erosion intensity and exposure time. The coastlines of the eastern and western lobes are experiencing the most severe erosion, with ground settlement exceeding 20 mm yr-1. Sand-drift activities exhibit a seasonal pattern, with spring experiencing the most notable absolute deformation. Soil moisture was identified as the primary factor controlling ground deformation, while wind speed was the essential factor leading to the deformation. Based on the time series of ground deformation, the dried Aral Sea basin can be clustered into rapid erosion, slow erosion, stable, slow deposit, and rapid deposit zones, respectively. Finally, an intense dust event on March 22, 2020, was used to verify the results derived from the SBAS-InSAR technology. Different from the previous studies, this research provides a more detailed view of wind-blown sediment subsidence and accumulation, moving beyond the concept of the dried Aral Sea basin as a simple source of dust emissions. These findings offer vital insights for the quantitative estimation of dust emissions in the southern Aral Sea basin. (c) 2025 International Research and Training Center on Erosion and Sedimentation, China Water and Power Press, and China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Tarim Basin in western China is home to the world's second-largest mobile dune desert, Taklimakan Desert, and it's one of Asia's primary sources of sand and dust storm. Observations of windblown dust are insufficient over this hyper-dry inland region. Here we present a comprehensive study based on consecutive in-situ field observations, meteorological records, environmental monitoring data and satellite measurements over the Tarim Basin for a full year in 2015. The results show that during the severe sand and dust storm events, the observed ambient PM10 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤ 10 μm) concentration rises rapidly, with a maximum value exceeding 10,000 µg/m3 per hour, while wind speeds reach 10-30 m/s and visibility is reduced to less than 10 m. Soil particulates can be blown vertically into the atmosphere at a height of 3-12 km. High volumes of dust deposition were measured at environmental monitoring stations, ranging from 1764 to 3800 g/m2 yr. Those significant flux levels of ambient particulate matter (PM) concentrations and dust depositions are strongly associated with frequent dust occurrence in the arid environment of the Tarim Basin. Satellite measurements of aerosol optical depths (AOD) show a broad spatial pattern of dust aerosols distribution over the basin, with dense dust remaining suspended for long periods of time (3-5 months in spring and summer seasons). The wind regimes, basin-like topography, thermodynamic condition, and loose sandy surfaces greatly affect the regional aeolian dust environment in the Tarim Basin, which lead to a significantly high dust emission, ambient PM concentration and dust deposition.

This paper provides a comprehensive review and an in-depth analysis of the multifaceted issues surrounding food security in China, exploring historical trends, current challenges, and future strategies. Drawing upon a wide range of sources including government reports, the academic literature, and expert analyses, it examines the complex interplay of factors influencing food production, distribution, and consumption in China. The paper highlights the importance of addressing environmental sustainability, technological innovation, and social equity in shaping China’s food security agenda. By synthesizing key findings and proposing actionable recommendations, this paper contributes to the ongoing discourse on food security in China and offers insights for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners alike. These findings underscore the need for integrated policies that promote sustainable agricultural practices, technological innovation, and infrastructure development while supporting smallholder farmers, ensuring that China’s food security remains resilient in the face of climate change and evolving global food dynamics.

Desertification poses a significant ecological threat to global sustainability, notably within arid regions such as the Tarim Basin surrounding the extensive Taklimakan Desert in Northwest China. This study used the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform and Random Forest (RF) to analyze multi-temporal Landsat images to reveal desertification dynamics in the Tarim Basin spanning from 1990 to 2020. The results showed that land use types of the Tarim Basin were classified into three types: artificial oases, natural oases, and desertified land. To robustly quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of land use, we introduced the Desertification Change Index (DCI), a novel metric specifically designed to measure the transformation sensitivity of land use types. Our analysis demonstrated that from 1990 to 2020, artificial oases showed a continuous increasing trend, while desertified land decreased significantly. Natural oases decreased during 1990–2000, then continued to grow, and showed a decreasing trend again after 2015. Moreover, natural oases have mainly been converted into desertified land and artificial oases. Artificial oases were mainly converted into natural oases, and most of desertified land was converted into natural oases. Regions with significant oasis expansion (DCI=2) were mostly concentrated within the influence radius of artificial oases. In contrast, regions with significant oasis degradation (DCI= –2) were generally farther from artificial oases. Finally, this study found that the changes in land use types of the Tarim Basin are mainly driven by human activities, which play a dual role—mitigating desertification by controlling oasis expansion and exacerbating desertification through unsustainable resource utilization. Ultimately, this research provides essential insights for policy-makers and land managers aiming to devise adaptive and sustainable desertification control measures in the Tarim Basin and similarly arid regions globally.

During March 13-18, 2021, East Asia experienced the strongest dust storm in the last decade. This windblown dust event caused large-scale dispersion of aerosol pollution, and attracted widespread attention due to its severe impacts on land-atmosphere-marine ecosystems. Here we investigated the dust sources, transport, and deposition of this dust storm and its effects on the Asia-Pacific region by using ground observations, satellite remote sensing products, and numerical simulation. The results showed that the potential aeolian dust source was mainly located in the Gobi Desert in southern Mongolia and central Inner Mongolia. This dust storm generated rapid increases in ambient particle concentrations over northern and eastern China, the Korean peninsula, and southwestern Japan. Air quality in 82% of the studied East Asian cities deteriorated noticeably as a result of mineral dust intensification. The ground-based Mie-scattering lidar detected the long-distance dispersion of dust aerosols in the 3-5 km high altitudes over Seoul, Osaka, Tokyo, and Niigata. Approximately 16.1 Tg of floating dust was deposited in the Northwest Pacific Ocean. The intensity of dust deposition in the East China Sea was almost twice that in the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan. Satellite data revealed that dust particles transported remotely from the East Asian desert were deposited in the North Pacific, resulting in an evident increase (55%-86%) in regional chlorophyll-a concentrations within a week after this dust storm event. Marine algal blooms developed quickly in response to the joint effects of atmospheric dry or wet deposition and surface-ocean currents. This study quantitatively assessed the potential influences of this strong East Asian dust storm on the atmospheric and marine environment, providing a multi-angle perspective for investigating the dynamic long-range transport of aerosols and its implications for global dust cycles.

The African Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI) is an ambitious transcontinental program aimed at halting desertification, restoring degraded lands, and improving livelihoods across the Sahel region. Despite its transformative vision, the initiative has encountered technical, financial, and governance challenges. In recent years, China’s involvement—drawing from its extensive experience with the Three-North Shelterbelt Program and integrated desertification control—has introduced a new model of South-South cooperation. Through adaptive technologies, capacity building, and co-developed community-based strategies in Mauritania, Ethiopia, and Nigeria, Chinese partners have provided tangible contributions to Africa’s ecological restoration. This article documents these collaborative stories and argues that China’s ecological governance framework is shaping a new paradigm for global environmental development.

In arid regions, terminal lakes play a crucial role in maintaining the local ecological environment. However, due to the impact of climate change and human activities, terminal lakes are prone to shrinkage and drying up. The exposed lakebeds became new sources of sand and dust, leading to severe land degradation. This study extracted the water surface area of the Chaiwopu Lake in Urumqi and calculated the fractional vegetation cover (FVC) in the surrounding areas based on Landsat images from 2000 to 2022. The changes in FVC and lake area before and after the implementation of the policies on fallow and groundwater extraction restriction in 2014 were analyzed. Using the SBAS-InSAR method, the surface deformation during the period of minimum lake area from 2014 to 2018 was estimated, and the process of wind erosion and accumulation in the dried lake basin was analyzed. The results showed that from 2011 to 2014, Chaiwopu Lake experienced rapid shrinkage, and the lake almost disappeared. After 2014, the lake rapidly recovered, reaching 70% of its original area by 2021. With the recovery of the lake, the vegetation coverage in the surrounding area has changed from decreasing to increasing. During the period of lake shrinkage, the dried lake basin experienced severe wind erosion, with the maximum erosion rate exceeding 40 mm/year. The sand and dust from the dried lake basin accumulated around the lake under the influence of wind, further accelerating land degradation in the surrounding areas. After 2021, the restored lake and wetland surface covered the once-dry lake basin again, and the largest dust source in the region nearly disappeared. The study results indicated that the restoration of the lake and surrounding vegetation can eliminate the sources of sand and dust and prevent their transportation, effectively preventing land desertification.