This study investigates the metallurgical traditions and resource circulation of the Sanxingdui culture through alloy compositional and lead isotope ratio analyses of 79 bronze samples from Sanxingdui Pits 1 and 2. The results reveal a predominance of lead-tin bronze characterised by ubiquitous high lead content, while tin levels were more strictly managed, particularly in bronze vessels. All samples exhibit the highly radiogenic lead (HRL) signature characteristic of the Shang period. The persistence of HRL at Sanxingdui after its decline in the Central Plains is consistent with a shift from external procurement towards the internal circulation and reuse of metal. We advance the remelting of earlier HRL bronzes as a working hypothesis to account for this pattern. These findings illuminate how regional polities adapted their metallurgical strategies to shifting geopolitical landscapes.

To advance non-destructive evaluation of bronze artifacts, this work presents an approach integrating multimodal data from corrosion images and MA-XRF chlorine distribution maps for characterizing corrosion products induced by bronze disease. Dry-wet cyclic experiments were conducted to simulate corrosion processes, from which corrosion images at different time points were systematically acquired. Chlorine elemental distribution maps were obtained via macro X-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) imaging, from which the area proportion of high-chlorine regions was extracted for data mining, modeling, and experimental validation. Results show that 20 physical features extracted from corrosion images exhibit significant Spearman correlations (rho > 0.4, up to 0.6) with high-chlorine area fractions, validating the feasibility of inferring bronze disease progression from visual characteristics. Machine learning models, trained on these visual features to predict chloride-rich area fractions, achieved an R-2 of 0.83, demonstrating robust capability for forecasting bronze disease evolution directly from images. A clustering-based classification model, integrating multi-modal physical features, categorizes corrosion products into four distinct classes, elucidating the spatiotemporal dynamics of rust layer transitions in the early stages of bronze disease development. This approach enables a preliminary assessment of the progression of bronze disease.

This study examines miniature iron artefacts from the Ba Mausoleum of Emperor Wen to explore the technical strategies for making these iron ritual items. Analyses of 42 samples identified three principal production pathways: mould-casting, annealing-forging, and fining-forging, indicating a diverse range of processing techniques derived from a cast iron-based production system. The technological choices evident in these ritual artefacts, however, diverge significantly from those of contemporary utilitarian ironware. Most significant is the use of labour-intensive forging for ritual items, despite the availability of efficient alternatives. This technical extravagance contradicts the overarching ideology of frugality (Bo-Zang) advocated by Emperor Wen, as evidenced by historical records. We argue that iron served primarily as a medium to reconcile ideological frugality with the need for institutional symbolism in the afterlife bureaucracy, rather than reflecting a strict adherence to cost-saving in the manufacturing process. Consequently, the principle of frugality was not uniformly applied, with factors such as artisan autonomy and inconsistent institutional oversight likely exerting a stronger influence on the final technological choices.

This study examines the production techniques of bronze foils excavated from the Sanxingdui site in southwestern China. The foils were mainly made of tin–copper–lead ternary alloys and tin–copper binary alloys, shaped through hammering, and decorated using incising, punching, embossing, and painting. Perforations were produced by single-sided striking, with burrs left untrimmed, reflecting a craft practice that balanced functional and ornamental considerations. The hammering techniques may have been influenced by metalworking traditions from the northern steppes, while the incised decoration likely drew inspiration from jade and gold carving techniques of the Central Plains, subsequently developing a distinctive local style. These bronze foils demonstrate both the technical innovation of Sanxingdui artisans and their ritual significance, highlighting the role of Sanxingdui within regional cultural exchange networks during the bronze age and providing insights into the technological and cultural characteristics of the ancient Shu civilization.

This study presents an innovative approach combining semantic segmentation and 3D reconstruction to analyze CT images of bronze casting moulds and cores unearthed at the Taijiasi archaeological site. Leveraging the Swin-Unet deep learning architecture, the proposed MouldCTSegNet model achieves accurate material segmentation in challenging CT datasets characterized by low contrast and blurred boundaries. The segmented results are used to reconstruct precise 3D models of different material components using volume rendering. This method not only enhances the understanding of ancient combined-material moulding techniques but also provides an advanced tool for cultural heritage preservation, offering significant contributions to archaeology and related disciplines.

This paper presents results of historical copper production in the eastern Qinling Mountains, southern Shaanxi, China. Based on multi-season fieldwork and slag characterization, this study provides preliminary but important insights into copper-smelting technologies in the region. The evidence supports a prevailing pathway in which sulfidic ores were smelted to a Cu (Fe)-Sb matte and subsequently oxidized to produce metallic copper. Slags largely fall within the FeO-SiO2-CaO system and show inter-site variation in FeO, SiO2 and CaO proportions, microstructures (fayalite, magnetite, glass), and entrapped metal particles, reflecting differences in ore geology, fluxing, furnace atmosphere, and craft skill. We also discuss the historical context and regional significance of copper resource exploitation in the Qinling region.

This study investigates the resource utilization and organizational strategies in pottery production at the Lushanmao site, a significant Late Neolithic settlement located in northern Shaanxi, China. Through petrographic analysis and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), we identified more than four distinct pottery recipes, revealing a relatively diversified production system likely involving multiple independent units.The results indicate that the raw clay materials can be classified into two primary types, which were modified through the addition of various materials. Notably, tubular tiles exhibit a high degree of uniformity in their recipes, while other pottery types display significant variability, suggesting differences in production requirements and organizational approaches. The various types of raw materials used highlight the complexity of technological traditions and raw material sourcing. These findings not only shed light on the potters’ preferences for local clay resources and the diversity of processing methods but also provide new insights into ceramic production with Late Neolithic societies of the Northern Loess Plateau.

The bronze artifacts of the Shang Dynasty serve as pivotal carriers of early Chinese civilization’s technological and cultural achievements, with their intricate classification systems and multidimensional attributes (e.g., metallurgical composition, casting techniques, social functions) urgently requiring the support of structured semantic models. This article presents OSDBA (Ontology for Shang Dynasty Bronze Artifacts), a bilingual ontology designed to overcome data interoperability challenges by integrating archaeometallurgical knowledge. OSDBA integrates concepts from typology, casting technology, and alloy science into a unified semantic framework. Comprising eight core classes, totaling one hundred and seven classes, seven object properties, six data properties, one thousand six hundred fifty-one axioms, and one hundred thirty individuals, it features a bilingual (Chinese-English) schema and is explicitly aligned with the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (ISO 21127:2023) to ensure broad interoperability. Logical consistency was validated using standard reasoners, and functional utility was demonstrated through SPARQL queries. Published as a machine-readable OWL file, OSDBA provides a foundational, extensible knowledge base for facilitating integrated research on Shang bronze culture.

The Liangzhu Culture (3300–2300 BC) is renowned for its monumental earthen architecture within the low-lying wetlands of the Yangtze Delta. While the scale of Liangzhu City and associated mounds signifies social complexity, the specific engineering strategies employed and their relationship to environmental adaptation and social organization remain underexplored. This study investigates Liangzhu mound construction at the middle section of the Zhongjiagang Watercourse and Shiqianwei sites from a geoarchaeological perspective, combining bulk sedimentological and soil micromorphological analysis. Stratigraphic and micromorphological analyses identify a sequence of construction practices, including the use of sediments from adjacent pre-site deposits in foundation layers, the widespread application of the characteristic ‘clay wrapped with grasses’ technique, and the use of processed sediment mixtures in upper layers. This research suggests mound building was part of an integrated engineering system, intrinsically linked with extensive water management networks, reflecting a holistic strategy for landscape modification. The scale, technical standardization, and organizational requirements evident in these processes point to centralized planning, significant labor mobilization, and robust resource management.

The Miaoliang Site, a key settlement in northern Shaanxi, China, spans the transition from the late Yangshao period (ca.3000–2500 BC) into the Longshan era (ca.2500–2000 BC) offering critical materials for investigating the development of social complexity in northern China. This study combines thin-section petrography and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis to systematically examine 47 representative pottery sherds along with relevant geological samples, revealing the underlying technological strategies of pottery production during this transitional era. The results indicate that potters primarily used locally available calcareous loess, which underwent systematic refining and function-oriented paste preparation. Intentionally tempering with grog or crushed rock was observed specifically in cooking vessels and large storage containers. Provenance analysis of temper further reveals a complex resource-use pattern: grog usage reflects a localized technological identity and a conscious choice to repurpose materials within the community, while the procurement of certain rock fragments extended beyond the "7-km threshold", suggesting organized long-distance raw material networks. The widespread use of mixed-temper recipes likely points to a centralized system for raw material processing and distribution within the settlement, rather than purely household-based production. Notably, despite profound cultural shifts between the Yangshao and Longshan periods, core pottery-making technologies—including paste preparation and forming techniques—displayed significant stability and continuity. This finding offers important empirical evidence for understanding how prehistoric societies maintained technological traditions in craft production and sustained cultural resilience during periods of intensive regional interaction and integration.

The Gachayingzi site represents the first confirmed bloomery iron production site associated with the early Xianbei people discovered in Northeast China to date, dating to 28–204 CE. Microstructural and elemental analyses of slag samples demonstrate that both bloomery iron smelting and smithing processes were practiced at the site. This archaeometallurgical study provides preliminary insights into the iron production techniques of China's early Xianbei, laying a solid foundation for related research. Synthesizing regional archaeological evidence, the study suggests that early Xianbei iron production technology likely developed through cultural and technical interactions with the Xiongnu. Furthermore, the identification of bloomery iron smelting in Northeast China offers new perspectives for re-evaluating the transmission routes of this technology to the Korean Peninsula.

The Lijiaya Culture represents a significant branch of the Bronze Age culture in northern China during the Late Shang period, and its area of distribution intersects the agro-pastoral ecotone between the Central Plains and the Eurasian Steppe. The Late Longshan period (4100 − 3900 B.C.) to the Late Shang period (1400 − 1100 B.C.) coincided with a global climatic shift towards cooler and drier conditions, marking the development phase of prehistoric pastoralism in northern Shaanxi. Due to the lack of materials and relevant research, academic understanding of the survival strategies of the early inhabitants in northern Shaanxi remains fragmented and contradictory. This study takes ceramic sherds unearthed from the Qingjian Xinzhuang site, a representative site of the Lijiaya Culture, as research objects, conducting lipid analyses using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography combustion isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS) techniques. The results confirm the processing and utilization of millet crops, as well as the presence of ruminant dairy and adipose fats, with indications that the ruminants consumed C4 plants. These findings point to a mixed farming-pastoral economic model existing at that time and place. The study of lipid residues in ceramics provides new evidence for understanding the patterns of resource utilization and agricultural-pastoral practices in the region during that period.

Seventeen Han Dynasty iron artifacts from the Luojiaba site, including materials from unit H235 and a burial area, were analyzed using metallography and SEM-EDS. The results indicate the concurrent use of cast iron and wrought iron/steel technologies. Cast iron artifacts-comprising white iron, mottled iron, and malleable cast iron-were mainly employed for containers and plates, whereas wrought iron and steel objects, such as knives and awls, were produced through forging, carburization, and possibly 'CHAO'-fining processes. The constitution of inclusion demonstrates the coexistence of bloomery iron and fining steel, with bloomery iron predominating. Comparisons between slag from H235 and artifact inclusions reveal close compositional correlations, suggesting local production of many bloomery iron artifacts, while some items, including a fining steel bar and an iron sword, likely originated elsewhere. These results provide the scientific evidence for a complex, regionally adaptive metallurgical system at that region during the Han Dynasty.

Abstract This chapter provides an overview of the development of archaeometallurgical research in China over the past 50 years. This can be divided roughly into three periods. Archaeometallurgical research in the first period (1974–1983) is represented by Professor Tsun Ko’s (Ke Jun 柯俊) work on a Shang bronze axe with a meteoritic iron blade, which exemplified the successful application of scientific analysis to archaeological metals. The second period (1984–2003) saw the beginning of institutionalisation of archaeometallurgical research, which laid a solid foundation for later growth and expansion. The third period (2004–2023) is characterised by a series of significant changes, such as the emergence of new generations of scholars, an expansion of postgraduate programs, and the implementation of national research projects. The transition from a nationalism-motivated framework to a science-oriented approach is significant in understanding recent developments in archaeometallurgical research in China. This chapter not only highlights important changes in research focuses and theoretical approaches but also explores the motivations and mechanisms behind these changes. The crucial role of the international conference series ‘The Beginnings of the Uses of Metals and Alloys’ (the BUMA conference) in the development of archaeometallurgical research in China is examined to show the long-term impact of growing cooperations and exchanges between Chinese scholars and international partners and colleagues.

This study presents a scientific investigation of an ancient iron tinning technique based on the artifacts excavated at the Jizhong site in Shaoxing, China, dating to the Eastern Wu period (222-280 AD). An integrated multi-analytical approach (including optical microscope, SEM-EDS, XRD, and micro-CT) was employed to determine the chemical composition, phase assemblage, and microstructural characteristics of the tin coating on the surfaces of the iron armor and iron Yang ( j). The continuous tin layers, with a maximum thickness of similar to 330 mu m, are interpreted as having been produced by hot-dip tinning method with molten unalloyed tin, based on the observed micrometer-scale FeSn2 intermetallic layer at the irontin interface and the varied spatial distribution of the coatings. Examination of the operational sequence indicates that tinning was applied after the iron objects had been fully manufactured, rather than being fabricated from pre-tinned iron sheets. Hot-dip tinning enabled complete surface coverage, producing a relatively thick external tin layer which effectively isolated the iron matrix from air and moisture, thereby enhancing corrosion resistance and also significantly contributing to the decorative appearance. Even after approximately 1,700 years of burial, the tinned armor retained a silvery-white metallic luster. Through comparative analysis, this technological innovation is likely rooted in the long-standing use of tin as a surface coating material in early China. Importantly, the tinned iron objects, together with tin metal and semi-finished products excavated from the Jizhong site, represent, to date, the earliest tinned iron artifacts in China and provide the earliest currently recognized worldwide evidence for a systematic iron tinning handicraft industry with a well-defined manufacturing sequence. (c) 2026 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.

This review summarizes the current state of bronze provenance studies in China, highlighting both recent trends and challenges for scholars working with Chinese artefacts and beyond. The first section addresses the issues surrounding highly radiogenic lead (HRL) from the Shang period, arguably the most widely discussed topic in Chinese bronze provenance research. In addition to providing an overview of the current discourse, this section emphasizes two critical questions: the metal(s) with which HRL is associated, and the meaning of its isochron-like trend line. Clarifying these questions could fundamentally alter our understanding of HRL and the metal circulation systems of the Shang period. The second section focuses on the emerging pattern in the rapidly growing body of publications on lead isotope analysis of Chinese bronzes, particularly the synchronic alteration of lead isotope features across vast regions over two millennia. Additionally, this section reviews specific spatial-temporal units, which have generated significant research in recent years and may reveal distinct metal circulation systems. The following sections shift attention to the provenance of copper and tin, essential components in the production of bronze artefacts but often overlooked in provenance studies. Methodological challenges are discussed, with a particular emphasis on the widely used trace element analysis technique. Furthermore, increasing archaeological evidence from metallurgical workshops related to mining, smelting, and alloying practices of these metals holds potential to shed new light on these issues in the near future. Finally, the review offers a brief discussion on model-informed provenance investigations, reflecting a global trend in the field, which is expected to have a substantial impact on the study of Chinese materials in various ways.

This paper presents a study of 45 iron objects unearthed from the ancient Jingbao’er jade mining site in the western Hexi Corridor, dating from the Warring States period to the early West Han dynasty (about fourth–first centuries BCE). Metallographic and slag inclusion analyses were conducted to investigate the material features and their potential correlation with intended applications. Of the analysed items, 38 were made of cast iron, some of which had been decarburized or graphitized through annealing treatment to enhance their properties. Seven artefacts were identified as bloomery iron, indicating a distinct iron production tradition, likely localized and small in scale. It is conveyed that by the late first millennium BCE, the supply of iron artefacts at the Jingbao’er site was predominantly derived from the cast‐iron system, with evidence of regional bloomery smelting highlighting the complexity of iron production during this period. These observations offer new insights into the adoption of iron in the Hexi Corridor and the dynamics of regional technological exchange.

The aim of this article is to contribute to a better understanding of the transition from bloomery iron to cast iron technology in the Qin state during the Warring States period. Only five iron objects were unearthed from the Xuliangpo cemetery in the southeast of Xi'an, Shaanxi province. This small assemblage, already indicative of technology in its early stages, dates to the mid Warring States period (around the mid-4th century BCE). Of these five objects, only two were sufficiently well-preserved for metallographic and compositional analysis. Nonetheless, one object (a ring) was identified as bloomery iron, and the other (a belt-buckle) was shaped using cast iron. We propose that the mid Warring States period can be viewed as a time when both bloomery and cast iron were used in the Qin State, prior to the massive adoption of cast iron smelting from the Central Plains in the late Warring States period.

Sanxingdui, one of the most significant Bronze Age sites in China, has yielded unique bronze artifacts with varying styles: some exhibit distinct local characteristics, while others resemble central Shang designs, raising questions about their origins. This study applies semi-quantitative petrographic observations and elemental analysis to 39 casting core samples from Pits 1 and 2 at Sanxingdui. The results reveal distinct differences in production techniques and materials between vessel and non-vessel artifacts. Comparative analysis with local soils, sediment, and casting cores from other Chinese bronze production sites suggests that non-vessel bronzes were likely cast locally near Sanxingdui, while vessel artifacts show connections to the middle and lower Yangtze River region. Our findings indicate that Sanxingdui bronzes were part of a larger, interconnected circulation network for bronze products and ores, reflecting complex cultural, technological, and material exchanges with other regions during the Shang period.

A set of ancient chime stone excavated from the tomb of the Marquis of Haihun dating back to the Western Han dynasty has drawn the interest of archaeologists owing to its distinctive armor-like crust that retains the original outline of the instruments. In this research, we employ a range of analytical techniques to elucidate the material characteristics and formation mechanisms of the associated weathering products. The results demonstrate that intense chemical weathering led to powdery disintegration and severe dissolution of the carbonate matrix. Prior to this deterioration, however, siderite-rich crusts had formed on the surface through a process involving the dissolution of parent calcite and precipitation of secondary siderite within the anthropogenically modified microenvironment of the sealed tomb. Crucially, the rare occurrence of pseudomorphic substitution effectively preserved the original surface morphology and outer contours of the chime stones, laying an essential foundation for their further restoration.