The morphology of soil profiles during their summer and winter period was studied as well as the microstructure and major physic chemical properties of permafrost-affected loamy tundra soils. Studied objects were the initial (zero-moment) soils and the same profiles after 7 and 23 years up to the fully developed soil profiles of Middle and Early Holocene age. The leading role of the cryogenic processes in formation of morphology and properties and structure organization at different stages of development was determined. This effect realizes through the thermal yield ability and ice segregation. The difference of summer and winter structural organization was obtained. The instability of morphological features formed by cryogenic processes was also determined. These features may change and disappear due to the changes in hydrothermal regime, freezing-thawing processes, ice segregation forms. The stability of soil structure is determined by the formation of soil-aggregate chemical complexes. It was also shown that the structural morphological features in soil diagnostic horizons form before the significant differences of chemical properties appear. The cryogenic effect on soil formation is mainly realized through the microturbations of the uppermost horizons at the initial stages of soil formation. Later on, the horizontal and vertical migration of organogenic material may affect the structure and properties of the middle and lowermost soil horizons. One of the leading processes in permafrost-affected soils’ formation is the physical (cryogenic) disintegration of plant litter and forming of detritus in the upper parts of the profiles and coarse humus enrichment of the middle and lowermost soil horizons due to the cryoturbation.

The morphology of permafrost-affected tundra soils developing from loamy substrates, their microstructure, and their main chemical properties during summer and winter seasons are considered. The research objects are represented by the profiles of initial (zero-moment) soils, 7- and 23-year-old soils, and fully developed Early, Middle, and Late Holocene soils. The leading role of cryogenic processes in the formation of the main properties and structural organizations of the soils at different stages of their development is shown. The influence of cryogenic processes is mainly realized through the phenomena of thermal shrinking and ice segregation. The structural organization of the soil profiles differs in summer and winter seasons. The instability of morphological features shaped by cryogenic processes is shown: these features may alter or disappear under the impact of variations in the hydrothermal regime, freezing–thawing processes, and forms of ice segregation. The stability of soil structure is determined by the formation of chemically bound aggregates. The structural and microstructural features of the soils in summer and winter periods also depend on the stage of soil development. The characteristic morphological features of soil diagnostic horizons are formed prior to the development of significant differences in their chemical properties. The cryogenic impact on soil the initial stages of soil formation is mainly realized through microturbation of the uppermost horizons. Later on, the horizontal and vertical migration of organic material may affect the structure and properties of the middle-profile and lower soil horizons. The leading processes of the formation of permafrost-affected soils include physical (cryogenic) disintegration of plant debris and enrichment of the upper parts of the profiles with plant detritus and of the middle and lowermost soil horizons with raw humus owing to cryoturbation.

Анотація. Розглянуто космічний апарат, що містить гібридні енергетичну та рушійну установки на основі сонячної батареї і електрохімічного акумулятора, реверсивного паливного елемента з ємністю води у якості робочого тіла, які у комплексі забезпечують живленням усі бортові системи та живлять два типи двигунів – маршового газового ракетного та маневрового електроракетного.Сонячна батарея генерує енергію для живлення основних систем, підключених до центральної шини. Системи включають: електрохімічний накопичувач енергії, спеціалізовані бортові споживачі, реверсивний паливний генератор, газову автоматику, електроракетний двигун. Реверсивний паливний елемент функціонує у двох режимах роботи – як електролізер води та як електрохімічний генератор. У режимі електролізера води здійснюється дисоціація води на водень і кисень, що надалі накопичуються у відповідних гнучких ємностях зберігання. З ємностей ці компоненти подаватимуться в маршовий газовий ракетний двигун через газову автоматику. Двигун має виконувати імпульсний Гоманівський орбітальний перехід, створюючи режим швідкісного космічного буксиру. Надалі надлишок запасу води, що перетворена на водень та кисень перетворюється у електричну енергію у режимі електрохімічного генератора та виконує когенерацію з сонячною батареєю необхідної енергії для живлення переважно електронагрівного двигуна, що коректує, який також використовує здобутий водень як робоче тіло. Таким чином реверсивний паливний генератор застосовується як електролізер на етапі видобутку паливних компонентів та як потужне додаткове джерело енергії у режимі електрохімічного генератора. Таке рішення дозволяє використовувати безпечні операції заправки робочим тілом на старті у якості якого використовується вода і перенести видобуток вибухонебезпечних компонентів водню і кисню безпосередньо у виконанні місії. Розрахунки масових характеристик також визначають більш вигідну стартову масу води як робочого тіла.

Small areas of steppe-like vegetation (steppoids) occur on southern slopes among open larch woodlands in the lower reaches of the Kolyma River, northeastern Siberia. Depending on the soil parent material, they are divided into petrophytic (on the bedrock colluvium) and thermophytic (on silty loam of the Yedoma (Ice Complex) formation) steppoids. Xeromorphic deeply thawing soils with diverse humus-accumulative horizons, high content of roots, fine subangular blocky structure, and an increased content of water-stable microaggregates are formed in steppoids. These soils from differ from the soils of surrounding taiga landscape by the decreased actual and potential acidity; higher contents of exchangeable bases, soluble salts, carbonates, and organic nitrogen; smaller ratio between concentrations of oxalate- and dithionite-extractable iron. The soils of steppoids, especially thermophytic steppoids, are zooturbated. Dark mull-like forms of humus on the surface of mineral grains are present among the microaccumulations of organic matter in these soils. The features of cryoxerozemic pedogenesis are better manifested in petrophytic steppoids. The soils of thermophytic steppoids have similar features with steppe cryoarid ones, but differ from the latter in the absence of carbonate-accumulative and cryohumus horizons and in a relatively high acidity. Among the soils of petrophytic steppoids, gray-humus lithozems and gray-humus or mucky–dark-humus soils with carbonate incrustation can be distinguished. The soils of thermophytic steppoids can be classified as gray-humus or mucky–dark-humus surface-turbated (zooturbated) soils.

In sediments of the ice complex (yedoma) of MIS-3 and MIS-2 ages formed in the Late Pleistocene on the territory of the western sector of Beringia, the presence of four buried soils has been established. The main material of the sediments is represented by cryopedoliths—frozen mineral sediments of silty or silty–sandy composition, which passed through the stage of synlithogenic pedogenesis in the course of their accumulation and preserve certain signs of pedogenesis, but not fully formed soil profiles. Synlithogenic pedogenesis occurred under severe winter conditions, with high summer heat supply and sufficient moisture in the uppermost layers of the forming soils. It was limited to the active mineralization of the most easily decomposable organic residues with the release of a significant amount of nutrients and burial of plant residues in the form of detritus resistant to biochemical transformation in the middle and lower parts of the profiles. In MIS-3, synlithogenic soil formation was periodically interrupted by epigenetic soil formation caused by climatic warming with an increase in the depth of seasonal thawing and soil moistening, a cessation or sharp weakening of the supply of mineral sediment to the surface, and restructuring of the landscape situation. The soils formed at the beginning of MIS-3 are characterized by the greatest diversity of their morphologies and degree of profile development. The two subsequent soils, belonging to the middle stage of MIS-3, bear traces of hydromorphic or semihydromorphic pedogenesis and are close to the soils of modern swampy tundra. The soils of the final stage of MIS-3 developed under conditions of increasing climate severity and supply of mineral sediments to the surface. There are no signs of epigenetic soil formation in the MIS-2 strata.

A specific group of diverse marsh soils forming on sea coasts in the permafrost zone is proposed to be included into the Russian soil classification system. These soils are affected both by cryogenic and sea processes. At present, there are several regional classifications of marsh soils forming in the European north and Far East of Russia and in northern Europe. We have developed a classification scheme for these soils at four higher taxonomic levels (from soil trunks to soil subtypes) of the Russian soil classification system using the data of soil studies on the accumulative seashores in the eastern sector of Russian Arctic. The studied soils are preliminary named as Thalassosols. According to the proposed scheme, they are categorized within three soil trunks, for which new orders are introduced. The order of initial marsh soils is suggested for the trunk of initial pedogenesis. In the trunk of organogenic soils, marsh soils can be separated at the type level within the newly proposed order of allochthonous organic soils. A new order of marsh soils is also suggested for the trunk of synlithogenic soils. Approaches to further subdivision of marsh soils at the lower (type and subtype) levels of the Russian soil classification system are discussed. A new symbol (؉) is suggested to single out the soil layers and horizons of synlithogenic marsh soils. Specific diagnostic features of the profiles of marsh soils in the permafrost zone are related to the shallow embedding by permafrost and to the activity of cryogenic processes; these soils also have specific features related to soil salinization on seashores against the background of the activity of cryogenesis and soil waterlogging.

Thalassosols developing on the accumulative coasts of the East Siberian Sea include initial soils of regularly flooded tidal flats with sparse vegetation, episodically flooded marsh soils with different degrees of salinization, and maritime soils that are morphologically close to the zonal soils but are affected by salts transferred by wind with seawater drops and organomineral matter from the non-vegetated seashores. Weakly developed marsh soils have the initial features and structure of the marine sediments combined with the processes of salinization; sulfate reduction; gleyzation; cryogenic mass exchange; as well as the transfer, accumulation, and weak biochemical transformation of the raw organic matter. Soils with different degrees of salinization are formed on tidal marshes and are characterized by some redistribution of salts in the soil profile with weak accumulation of salts in the uppermost organic horizons and in the suprapermafrost layers along with pronounced sulfate reduction. Slightly saline organogenic and peaty gleyic soils predominate in the areas of sedge marshes. The majority of studied marsh soils form under the conditions of distinct cryogenic polygonal microtopography, waterlogging, and relatively shallow permafrost.

— Pedogenesis on the terraces of lacustrine–alas depressions in the tundra zone of the Kolyma Lowland takes place on sediments that are different in genesis but have significantly similar composition and properties. Soil morphology and soil cover patterns on terraces and slopes of depressions reflect the main trends of the Holocene pedogenesis and the rearrangement of the environment. On the terraces of the upper and middle levels, as well as on the interfluves, the major pedogenic trend is cryozem formation. On the lower terraces and in the bottoms of lacustrine–alas depressions, gleyzation and peat formation are considered to be stable and progressing processes. Soil formation is affected by close permafrost table (<1 m); therefore, all soils are qualified for Cryosols.

The cryogenic mass-exchange processes affect the content and distribution of organic matter in Cryosol profiles enriching the mineral horizons with organic matter. It has been shown that the mineralization capacity of organic materials in Cryosols is low even under optimum conditions of temperature and moisture. Despite the significant variation in the microbial biomass content, the general pattern of its distribution in the profile with a maximum in organic horizons and a minimum in mineral horizons is preserved in all studied profiles. The fraction of the microbial biomass carbon (C mb ) in the total organic carbon is less than 1%. The microbial respiration quotient ( Q r ) varies from <0.1 to 0.3. The most significant influence on the microbial biomass and changes in its respiration activity in the profiles of Cryosols is recorded for the contents of total organic carbon (TOC) and total nitrogen (TN) and for the soil porosity.

Coastal lowlands of northeastern Siberia are composed of the Pleistocene ice-rich organic-containing loamy sediments of the Ice Complex (yedoma) and products of their transformation in the Holocene. In the tundra zone, three major trends of modern pedogenesis depending on the geomorphic position and age of particular landforms have been identified. On the interfluves affected by thermokarst processes in the Holocene, somewhat elevated remains of the Late Pleistocene Ice Complex alternate with vast thermokarst depressions (alases) with lakes. Cryozems are developed in automorphic plain positions and on the upper parts of slopes. The profiles of these soils are strongly affected by cycles of frost boiling and cryoturbation; under their influence, specific suprapermafrost accumulative organomineral horizons are formed. Gleyzation predominates in the soils of the low- and middle-level Holocene terraces of alases. Peat accumulation is progressively developed in the bottoms of alas depressions.

Typical problems solved by the MSC groupings are considered. The advantages of the MSC grouping are determined. A mathematical description of the formation of a group for the rational management of propulsion systems is given in the case of constructing a grouping with high accuracy of location. Algorithms for deducing and constructing an MSC grouping using a dispenser are proposed. The analysis of propulsion systems is carried out and the choice of the electric propulsion engine for MSC is justified. The structure of engine control correction MSC is formed. An example of a grouping of small space vehicles for remote sensing of the Earth RapidEye based on MSC electric rocket engines is considered.

— The paper is targeted at positioning the cryogenic soils in the recent classification system of Russian soils. An on-line discussion and recent publications demonstrated significant differences in conceptual approaches to cryogenic soils, as well as their unaccounted diversity in the permafrost zone and their dynamics in time (e.g., during the thawing period) that create problems for their classification. In particular, the results depend on the observation time. Diagnostic properties of cryogenic horizon and the depth of the active layer were in the center of the discussion. Possible changes in the list of soil types and subtypes are proposed for the next approximation of the Russian soil classification system. The Cryozem order is proposed for the soils with the cryogenic diagnostic horizon (CR) and the maximum active layer depth of 1 m and less. Soils with other diagnostic horizons and with the active layer depth of more than 1 m should be accounted as permafrost-affected soils within the other orders of the soil classification system. Authors invite colleagues to further discussion with the aim to establish standard classification criteria for cryogenic soils.

In the profiles of cryozems (Oxyaquic Turbic Cryosols) developing in tundra of northern Yakutia under conditions of shallow active layer, suprapermafrost horizons of the accumulation of raw organic matter are formed. Taking into account their genesis, stable and regular position in the soil profile, paragenetic links with the overlying horizons and neighboring soil profiles, and a set of diagnostic features and properties, these horizons can be separated as a new type of genetic soil horizons—the organomineral accumulative suprapermafrost horizon (CRO). Its qualitative composition (the ratio of organic and mineral matter in the material) can be reflected at a lower level. In relation to the separation of the new genetic horizon within the framework of the new Russian soil classification system, a new genetic types of soils—cryozem with suprapermafrost accumulation of raw organic matter (suprapermafrost organo-accumulative cryozem)—can be established. Its diagnostic profile has the following horizonation: (O, AO, T)–CR–CRO–┬C.