Tuta absoluta is a major invasive pest of Solanaceous crops, largely managed through chemical interventions. Despite its economic importance, the genomic landscape of its detoxification machinery remains poorly understood. We performed a genome-wide identification of 23 GST genes (TabsGSTs) in T. absoluta, characterized by amino acid lengths of 147-289 aa and a predominantly 1- or 5-exon genomic architecture (∼65%). The identification of four tandemly arranged gene clusters highlights potential evolutionary hotspots for insecticide resistance. Phylogenetic analysis categorized these genes into seven subfamilies, with the lineage-specific expansion of the Epsilon class indicating its key role in xenobiotic metabolism. Transcriptional profiling revealed divergent responses to insecticides: chlorantraniliprole exposure (LC50) largely failed to induce TabsGST expression, whereas spinetoram LC50 treatment triggered significant upregulation of TabsGSTe6 and TabsGSTu1. This study elucidates the molecular characteristics and expression dynamics of the GST family in T. absoluta, offering vital molecular targets for resistance monitoring and the design of targeted control measures.

The South American tomato pinworm, Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is a devastating invasive pest of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). To evaluate candidate female-oriented semiochemicals, we examined the electroantennogram (EAG) activity of ten tomato-associated volatiles selected from previous reports. The compound 1-nonanol was selected as a candidate based on its relatively strong EAG activity and was subsequently assessed for its effects on olfaction, orientation, and oviposition. These findings indicate that 1-nonanol elicits female-biased attraction and stimulates oviposition under laboratory conditions. However, its ecological relevance within natural tomato volatile blends and its field performance require further validation before it can be developed as a female-oriented IPM component.

Erwinia amylovora is the bacterial pathogen that causes fire blight and is considered one of the most important plant pathogenic bacteria in the world, posing a serious threat to pear and apple production. However, majority of the current risk assessment studies have focused primarily on the potential geographic distribution of E. amylovora, with less focus on its dispersal patterns, dispersal risk areas, and economic impacts. Here, species distribution models, the minimum cost arborescence approach, the MigClim package, and Monte Carlo stochastic simulations were integrated to comprehensively assess the global establishment risk, the local dispersal patterns, the dispersal risk areas, and the economic losses for E. amylovora. The results showed that E. amylovora is primarily distributed in North America, southern South America, Europe, northern and southern Africa, western and eastern Asia, and southern Oceania under near-current climatic conditions. In addition, the overlapping area between the distribution area of E. amylovora and the host production area is 1,897.62 × 104 km2, mainly located in central North America, southern South America, Europe, northern Africa, eastern and western Asia, and southern Oceania. Its global distribution and the overlapping areas are expected to expand further under future climatic conditions. Erwinia amylovora shows a primarily “leap-frog” long-distance spread in China, and the dispersal risk area is mainly in northwestern China. The economic losses caused by E. amylovora to the host industry amounted to 5,603.66 million dollars without any control measures; however, 2,390.13 million dollars can be saved after control measures. Such comprehensive risk assessments provide global guidance for the monitoring and control of E. amylovora in host production areas while also helping to formulate management priority strategies in local dispersal risk areas, thereby reducing economic impacts.

The codling moth (Cydia pomonella) is the most serious pest of apple and pear orchards worldwide and has been designated as a quarantine or regulated pest by over 20 countries or regions globally. Morphological identification of the codling moth is highly specialized and time-consuming. In apple and pear production process, codling moth usually coexists with other insect species, including Carposina niponensis, Dichocrocis punctiferalis, Euzophera pyriella, Grapholita molesta, and Helicoverpa armigera, and sometimes the adults of Cydia trasias and Plutella xylostella; these moth species are morphologically similar to codling moth, especially in the pre-adult stages (e.g., egg, larva, and pupa) of them. This study provides an effective solution for distinguishing the codling moth from other insect species with similar appearances automatically; a new Transformer-based model, known as Cont-Transformer, is proposed. Specifically, contrastive learning is introduced to improve distinguishing ability, which contributes to minimizing the similarity of classification labels corresponding to different labels and maximizing the similarity of classification labels of samples with the same label. The cross-entropy loss and contrastive loss are combined to guide the model in focusing on the most discriminative regions. Furthermore, we systematically analyzed various data augmentation strategies to bolster the model’s robustness and generalization, including AutoAugment, RandAugment, TrivialAugment, MixUp, and CutMix. We evaluated the proposed model architecture Cont-Transformer through comprehensive model training and testing on an insect image dataset containing 26 insect categories and a total of 14,431 images. The proposed recognition model achieved accuracy, precision, and recall rates of 99.45%, 99.40%, and 99.45%, respectively, outperforming eight other popular models, i.e., AlexNet, ResNet-50, DenseNet-121, ShuffleNet-v2, EfficientNet-b0, DeiT, MobileViT, and Swin Transformer. Moreover, the developed codling moth investigation program can identify various stages, including egg, larva, pupa, and adult, of these moth species. The present findings should be significant for precise pest control and quarantine supervision.

Beauveria bassiana and Bacillus thuringiensis are widely utilized entomopathogens for biological control. Insects combat these microbial threats through the activation of innate immune defenses, with antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), particularly defensins, playing pivotal roles. Tuta (Phthorimaea) absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is a rapidly spreading and highly destructive invasive tomato pest that has developed resistance to conventional insecticides. To enhance the efficacy of entomopathogens targeted by AMPs, we investigated defensin functions in T. absoluta during pathogen challenge. A genome-wide survey identified four defensin genes (tadef1–4), each encoding 76–124 amino acids (228–372bp ORFs). All contained the insect defensin motif (C-X5-16-C-X3-C-X9-10-C-X4-7-CX1-C) and a conserved two-exon structure. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed their membership in the insect defensin family. Post-infection expression profiling showed that tadef1/2 were upregulated by both B. bassiana and B. thuringiensis, while tadef3/4 were suppressed by B. bassiana but induced by B. thuringiensis relative to uninfected controls. Developmental and tissue-specific expression analyses showed that tadef1/2 peaked in early instar larvae, especially midgut. Recombinant tadef1/2 demonstrated antibacterial activity against B. thuringiensis but lacked antifungal effects against B. bassiana. These results establish tadef1/2 as key effectors against Gram-positive bacteria and provide a molecular basis for improving the biocontrol of T. absoluta via immune modulation.

Invasive alien species (IAS) are a major driver of biodiversity loss, which poses substantial threats to food security, ecological integrity, and public health. Their proliferation results from synergistic interactions among species-specific traits (e.g., high reproductive capacity, and adaptability), environmental conditions, anthropogenic activities like global trade, biotic relationships, and policy frameworks. While much research has examined individual invasion drivers, emerging evidence confirms that invasion success primarily results from complex, multifactorial synergies. This review elucidates how the coupling of environmental stressors, biotic interactions, and human-mediated processes (notably habitat modification and dispersal mechanisms) accelerates the global spread of high-impact IAS, exemplified by species of global concern including Cydia pomonella, Tuta absoluta, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Erwinia amylovora, and tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV). We systematically evaluate how cascading interactions among these factors amplify ecological imbalances and invasion risks. Furthermore, advances in population genomics further enable critical insights into the adaptive evolution and genetic determinants of invasion success. Therefore, integrating multifactorial frameworks with genomic methodologies is vital for predicting invasion trajectories and developing targeted management strategies, underscoring the imperative for interdisciplinary approaches to mitigate the escalating threat of biological invasions.

The greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is a globally invasive pest that affects both horticultural and agricultural systems, causing substantial economic losses. However, comprehensive studies on its invasion genetics and associated symbiotic landscape in China are lacking. In this study, we analyzed the genetic diversity based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene and examined the infection patterns of six key secondary endosymbionts in 1702 individuals from 73 populations across 18 provinces in China. Phylogenetic analysis incorporating global sequences revealed that Chinese populations are comprised of ten haplotypes. Genetic diversity was extremely low, with haplotype H1 being overwhelmingly dominant (97.60% of individuals) and shared with global invasive lineages. Endosymbiont screening showed a high prevalence of Arsenophonus (78.56%) and Hamiltonella (44.98%), with frequent co-infections. These results suggest that the widespread invasion of T. vaporariorum in China likely originated from a limited number of founder individuals, resulting in a significant genetic bottleneck. The invasion success appears to be associated with a "genotype-symbiotype complex"-the dominant H1 maternal lineage combined with a beneficial symbiotic toolkit. These findings provide insights into the invasion dynamics of this pest and implications for targeted control strategies.

Chemosensory proteins (CSPs) are small soluble proteins in insects that facilitate the recognition of exogenous ligands, playing crucial roles in olfaction and potentially in detoxification processes. Tuta absoluta is a globally significant pest; however, its CSP gene family remains inadequately characterized. In this study, we identified 23 full-length CSP genes (TabsCSP1-TabsCSP23) through genome-wide analysis. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that TabsCSPs are distributed among different lepidopteran clades, supporting the evolutionary conservation of the CSP family and suggesting possible lineage-specific divergence within T. absoluta. Expression profiling revealed that TabsCSP8 was significantly upregulated following spinosad exposure, whereas TabsCSP19 was significantly upregulated following Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) exposure. Developmental expression profiling revealed that TabsCSP8 was highly expressed in adults and 1st instar larvae, while TabsCSP19 showed high expression in adults. Tissue expression profiling further indicated that both TabsCSP8 and TabsCSP19 were predominantly expressed in larval heads and epidermis. Fluorescence competitive binding assays revealed that TabsCSP8 exhibited strong binding affinities to chlorpyrifos (CPF) and moderate binding affinities to the main sex pheromone component (3E,8Z,11Z)-tetradecatrien-1-yl acetate (TDTA), but no detectable binding to the other tested ligands. TabsCSP19 showed no detectable binding to any of the tested ligands. Docking analysis showed that TabsCSP8 interacted with CPF and TDTA mainly through conventional hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Collectively, our findings reveal that CSPs in T. absoluta are involved not only in chemoreception but also in insecticide response, underscoring their dual functional roles in environmental adaptation. This study provides valuable molecular insights that could inform the development of novel CSP-based strategies for ecofriendly pest management.

The native thelytokous (TH) and arrhenotokous (AR) strains of Neochrysocharis formosa (Westwood) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) are promising biocontrol agents against the invasive tomato pest Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). This study assessed the performance and preferences of these strains in choice experiments involving five host instar ratios and evaluated their functional responses to seven densities of 1st instar larvae (5 to 40 hosts). In host-attacking behavior assays, an increasing proportion of 1st instar larvae led to a significant rise in host mortality rates for both strains. Both strains exhibited strong preferences for parasitizing and attacking 1st instar larvae over later instars, with the TH strain demonstrating significantly greater host-killing efficacy than the AR strain. Functional response experiments revealed that the attack rates of both strains were positively correlated with host density. Parasitism by both strains and host-stinging behavior by the TH strain showed type III functional responses, while host-feeding by both strains and host-stinging by the AR strain followed type II functional responses. Early establishment of the TH strain in tomato agroecosystems could enhance the management of T. absoluta. These findings provide critical insights into the functional dynamics of the TH and AR strains of N. formosa that can inform the development of effective biocontrol programs for this globally significant pest.

Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), a new invasive pest in China, is a major threat to global tomato production. Trichogramma egg parasitoids are an effective approach to controlling this pest. In this study, we examined the potential of seven strains from four Trichogramma species, encompassing three native and commercially available representatives in China—namely, Trichogramma chilonis Ishii (strains TC-HN and TC-JL), T. dendrolimi Matsumura (TD-JL), and T. ostriniae Pang and Chen (TO-JL and TO-MY)—and one of South America origin—T. pretiosum Riley (TP-GS and TP-HN), a species commercially available for T. absoluta control but not evaluated in any previous studies in China. The host acceptance of the seven Trichogramma strains by T. absoluta was examined by placing parasitoid females with T. absoluta eggs on cardboard in tubes. The performance (life history traits and lifetable parameters) of four prospective strains, TC-HN, TC-JL, TO-JL, and TP-HN, was tested by using cardboard with T. absoluta eggs. The most promising strains, TC-HN, TC-JL, and TP-HN, were evaluated on a larger scale using cages in the laboratory to assess their parasitism capacity. The most promising strain, TC-JL (and TP-HN), was tested in field cages to assess its control efficiency under cropping conditions. The TC-JL and TC-HN strains of T. chilonis, the TO-JL strain of T. ostriniae, and the TP-HN strain of T. pretiosum showed greater host acceptance; the TP-HN strain of T. pretiosum showed a greater egg-card parasitism rate. Strain TC-JL outperformed other species/strains under laboratory conditions. In field cage tests, the larval population size and percentages of damaged plants and leaves in cages with TC-JL released were significantly reduced by 75.10%, 55.56%, and 64.69%, respectively, compared with those of the non-Trichogramma-release control. Our results indicate that the Asian native T. chilonis (particularly strain TC-JL), a dominant commercial biocontrol agent, should be included in IPM programs targeting T. absoluta in China. T. pretiosum (particularly strain TP-HN) could be a potential candidate for biocontrol of T. absoluta.

The tomato leafminer Tuta (Phthorimaea) absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is a highly destructive invasive pest of tomato. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are key molecular chaperones that mediate insect responses to environmental stress. Despite their central role, a comprehensive characterization of HSP genes in T. absoluta has been lacking. This study presents the first genome-wide identification of HSP genes in T. absoluta. Here, we performed a genome-wide identification and characterization of T. absoluta HSP genes. In total, 58 HSP genes were identified, including 23 sHSPs, 10 HSP60s, 20 HSP70s, and five HSP90s. Coding sequence lengths ranged from 405 to 3,741 base pairs, encoding proteins of 103-475 amino acids. Gene structure analysis showed that 58% of these HSPs lacked introns. Chromosomal mapping revealed multiple tandem duplications, particularly within the sHSP and HSP70 families. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that T. absoluta HSPs clustered by subfamily with strong conservation. RT-qPCR revealed significant upregulation of several HSP70 genes (TaHSP70-8, TaHSP70-9, TaHSP70-11, TaHSP70-12, TaHSP70-13, TaHSP70-14, TaHSP70-17, and TaHSP70-18) under high-temperature stress. These findings provide the first comprehensive catalog of HSPs in T. absoluta, establishing a molecular framework for future studies on stress adaptation and offering insights for pest management strategies.

In order to explore the impact of insect density on the edge effect of Bactrocera minax (Diptera: Tephritidae) adult distribution in orange orchards, traps were set up in orchards with maggot infestation rates of 2%, 4%, and 20% to attract adults. The study compared differences in distribution between the side with noncitrus trees and the side farther away from them. The results showed that at lower insect densities (2% and 4% maggot infestation rates), the proportion of insect trap sites and the number of insects per trap on the side of the orchard adjacent to the trees were significantly higher than that on the side away from the noncitrus trees, additionally, the proportion of adults captured 10 to 20 m away from the side of noncitrus trees was also significantly higher than at other distances. However, at higher insect density (20% maggot infestation rates), there were no significant differences in the proportion of insect traps or the number of insects per trap between the adjacent and distant sides of the trees. Similarly, there were no significant differences in the proportion of adults captured at distances of 10, 20, 30, and 40 m away from the side of noncitrus trees in the orchard. In summary, at low insect density, B. minax adults exhibit a strong edge effect, concentrating on the side of the orchard with noncitrus trees, whereas at high insect density, they are evenly distributed throughout the orchard.

The olfactory system plays a crucial role in insect survival and reproduction. Odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) are essential for odor discrimination and hold the potential to be targets for pest management. Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), a devastating invasive pest of Solanaceae crops, has limited research on its OBPs. In this study, 34 OBP genes were identified in T. absoluta, including TabsGOBP1, TabsGOBP2, TabsPBP1a, TabsPBP1b, TabsPBP1c, and TabsPBP3, which belong to the Lepidoptera-specific GOBP/PBP subclass. Expression profiling revealed TabsPBP3 to be predominantly expressed in male antennae and the female pheromone gland-ovipositor complex, with peak expression at 6:00 AM associated with courtship and mating behavior. Fluorescence competitive binding assays demonstrated that TabsPBP3 strongly binds to the main pheromone component (3E, 8Z, 11Z)-tetradecatrien-1-yl acetate (TDTA) but exhibits weak or no affinity for other components. Molecular docking identified key active sites in TabsPBP3, including Phe37, Tyr61, Ile77, Leu84, Ile86, Leu87, Phe101, Ala136, Ile139, and Ala140, which facilitate interaction with TDTA. These findings establish TabsPBP3 as a key player in TDTA detection and provide foundational data for innovative pest control strategies targeting T. absoluta.

The gut microbiota of insects plays a fundamental role in modulating host physiology, including nutrition, development, and adaptability to environmental challenges. The rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is a major invasive pest of rice worldwide, yet the composition and functional profile of its gut microbial community remain poorly characterized. Here, we employed metagenome sequencing on the Illumina NovaSeq X Plus platform to explore the gut microbial diversity and predicted functions in adults of L. oryzophilus. Our results revealed a rich microbial community, comprising 26 phyla, 42 classes, 72 orders, 111 families, and 191 genera. The bacterial microbiota was overwhelmingly dominated by the phylum Proteobacteria (85.13% of total abundance). At the genus level, Pantoea (48.86%) was the most predominant taxon, followed by Wolbachia (14.57%) and Rickettsia (11.81%). KEGG analysis suggested that the gut microbiota is primarily associated with metabolic pathways such as membrane transport, carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, cofactor and vitamin metabolism, energy metabolism, and signal transduction. eggNOG annotation further highlighted significant gene representation in amino acid and carbohydrate transport and metabolism, while CAZy annotation revealed glycosyl transferases (GTs) and glycoside hydrolases (GHs) as the dominant carbohydrate-active enzymes. This study provides the first comprehensive insight into the gut microbiome of L. oryzophilus adults, highlighting its potential role in the ecological success of this invasive pest. Our findings lay groundwork for future research aimed at developing novel microbial-based strategies for the sustainable management of L. oryzophilus.

Crofton weed (Ageratina adenophora), a significant invasive species, extensively disrupts ecosystem stability, leading to considerable economic losses. However, genetic insights into its invasive mechanisms have been limited by a lack of genomic data. In this study, we present the successful de novo assembly of the triploid genome of A. adenophora, leveraging long-read PacBio Sequel, optical mapping, and Hi-C sequencing. Our assembly resolved into a haplotype-resolved genome comprising 51 chromosomes, with a total size of ~3.82 Gb and a scaffold N50 of 70.8 Mb. BUSCO analysis confirmed the completeness of 97.71% of genes. Genome annotation revealed 3.16 Gb (76.44%) of repetitive sequences and predicted 123,134 protein-coding genes, with 99.03% functionally annotated. The high-quality reference genome will provide valuable genomic resources for future studies on the evolutionary dynamics and invasive adaptations of A. adenophora.

To identify highly virulent Beauveria bassiana strains against Tuta absoluta and evaluate their biocontrol potential, four strains were phylogenetically characterized via ITS sequence analysis of rDNA and assessed for virulence against second-instar T. absoluta larvae. Foliar spray and root irrigation methods were used to establish B. bassiana endophytic colonization in tomato plants, with untreated plants serving as controls. A population life table was constructed to quantify the impact of colonized plants on larval development, fecundity, and key demographic parameters. Results showed variation in virulence among the four B. bassiana strains Bb1Bm, Bb2Bm, Bb1M, and BbC with Bb1Bm exhibiting the highest pathogenicity (85.00% corrected mortality at 1 × 108 spores/mL). Maximum endophytic colonization in tomato leaves was observed 14 days post-inoculation with both foliar spray and root irrigation treatments. Life table analyses revealed that T. absoluta feeding on colonized plants exhibited significantly reduced survival rates, shorter adult lifespans, and lower female fecundity compared to controls. Key population parameters, including net reproductive rate (R0), intrinsic rate of increase (r), and finite rate of increase (λ), were significantly reduced, while mean generation time (T) was significantly prolonged. These findings highlight the dual role of B. bassiana in T. absoluta management, demonstrating its potential as both a direct pathogen and an endophytic biocontrol agent capable of disrupting pest population dynamics.

Background: The invasive tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), poses a significant threat to global tomato production, and the limitations of chemical control necessitate the development of sustainable alternatives, such as biological control through classical or augmentative releases. The success of such programs is contingent on the climatic match between the pest and its natural enemies. Methods: This study conducted a global bioclimatic evaluation of T. absoluta and three promising larval parasitoids – Necremnus tutae , Neochrysocharis formosa , and Dolichogenidea gelechiidivoris – using the CLIMEX model to guide their strategic deployment. We predicted their climatic suitability based on an integrated scenario that accounts for both rainfed and irrigated agriculture. These predictions were then overlaid with global tomato cultivation areas to assess high-risk areas (pest Ecological Index (EI) ≥ 30) and quantify biocontrol potential (parasitoid EI ≥ 30). Results: The three parasitoids possess largely distinct climatic niches, with regions highly suitable for all three covering only approximately 5% of the pest’s high-suitability habitat. Critically, overlaying predictions with tomato cultivation areas revealed that T. absoluta presents a high climatic risk to approximately 53% of these areas. Approximately 50% of this high-risk area was climatically suitable for at least one highly suitable parasitoid species, while the biocontrol potential varies starkly by region. Conclusions: These findings provide a proactive, yet conservative and realistic, assessment that underscores the necessity of regionally tailored biocontrol strategies. By identifying areas of high climatic suitability, this study offers a scientific basis for developing targeted biological control programs against T. absoluta .

Climate warming is affecting the ranges and population dynamics of invasive species, including insects, which have become a global problem, causing biodiversity declines and agricultural economic losses. Anthonomus eugenii as an important invasive pest on pepper is now mainly located in the USA and Mexico. However, the global potential geographic distribution (PGD) of A. eugenii with climate change remains unknown, which makes it difficult to monitor and control. In this study, based on the global distribution areas and important environmental variables, we constructed an ensemble model to predict the global PGD of A. eugenii under the current climate and three climate scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5) in the 2030s and 2050s. The mean true skill statistics (TSS) and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of the EM were 0.825 and 0.988, respectively, indicating that the EM was reliable. The mean temperature of the driest (bio9) and wettest (bio8) quarter and precipitation of the coldest quarter (bio19) were the most important environmental variables affecting the PGD of A. eugenii. Under the current climate, the PGD of A. eugenii was mainly concentrated in southern North America and central South America. The suitable areas of A. eugenii could increase significantly, reaching the maximum under SSP5-8.5 in the 2030s, approximately 1911.7 × 104 km2. Moreover, the distribution centroid would shift to higher latitudes with global warming. It also had the potential invasion risk in Russia, China, the Republic of the Congo, and Romania, which should enhance quarantine control and early warning.