Forest-steppes are among the most complex temperate ecosystems in the Northern Hemisphere, yet remain among the least investigated from a palaeogeographic perspective. Here we propose a novel approach for reconstructing Holocene vegetation dynamics and climate changes in the forest–steppe ecotone using fossil burrows of fossorial mammals (krotovinas) preserved in chernozems. We analysed 27 krotovinas from six meadow-steppe sites in the East European forest-steppe. Pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs, and soil organic carbon content were obtained for all samples. 14 krotovinas were dated using the humic acids fraction. Palaeoclimate was reconstructed based on the Modern Analogue Technique trained on a regional modern soil pollen dataset. Vegetation changes were additionally derived using a biome-based approach. Studied burrows span 8.4–2.2 ka, and the onset of preserved krotovina formation coincides with regional humidification. Pollen spectra indicate xeric Artemisia-dominated steppe at 8.4–6.5 ka and a transition to forest-steppe vegetation after ∼6.5 ka. Relatively wetter phases (6.5–5.8, 5.4–4.9, and 3.5–3.3 ka) align with forest expansion, whereas drier phases coincide with steppe dominance. The boundaries between the hydrological phases coincide with peaks in Pseudoschizaea, which indicate enhanced surface runoff and erosion and may have contributed to the expansion of the gully system. Evidence of human impact first appears at 5.0–4.9 ka (Copper Age) and peaks at ∼2.2 ka (Iron Age). Overall, the framework is transferable to other semi-arid regions, where fossil burrows can provide a spatially distributed Holocene archive.

The impact of forest reclamation on cultivated soils have been studied in automorphic chernozems under wide (30 m) meridionally oriented broadleaf shelterbelts and their arable analogues near the shelterbelts in three key forest-steppe areas of the southern Central Russian Upland. The study sites are located in the area of heavy loamy and clayey typical chernozems. Over 60 years of shelterbelt growth are associated with significant changes in the morphological, physical, and chemical properties of the chernozems. Field soil moisture analysis conducted over two growing seasons (2020–2021) revealed that arable soils are wetter to the west of the shelterbelts than to the east, primarily due to the westerly transport of air masses during the warm seasons. Soils under shelterbelts, which are compared to arable soils, are characterized by an increased thickness of the humus-accumulative horizons (on average, by 13 cm), fragmentary lightening of the middle and lower parts of the humus layer in the form of a weak patchy coating of skeletans and exhibit signs of illuviation process in the B horizons (glossy films and thin cutans). The shelterbelt soils are characterized by a radial outflow of carbonates compared to arable analogs: a 3-m depth of shelterbelt soils contains, on average, 40–50 t/ha less carbon carbonate than the arable soils. These differences indicate an evolutionary transformation of soils under shelterbelts from typical chernozems towards leached chernozems. Also, the 3-m soil depth of shelterbelt soils is characterized by higher stocks of organic carbon (on average, by 27 t/ha compared to arable soils). The composition of humus in chernozems under shelterbelts undergoes significant transformation towards a forest type: the content of fulvic acid increases in the 0- to 20-cm layer, while deeper layers exhibit maximum accumulation of humic acids. Meanwhile, profile distribution of humus acids in arable soils exhibit its characteristic chernozem type. The determined lateral transfer of several substances (particularly phosphorus) from arable soils towards shelterbelt ones is associated with the desuction activity of tree root systems. Thus, shelterbelts activate a complex of autochthonous and allochthonous phenomena in the soil cover, noticeably transforming soils over a 60-year period.

Soil maps (1 : 25 000) have been created for an area of 8.6 km2 in the central part of the Smolenskoe Poozer’e National Park by conventional and digital soil mapping (DSM), taking into account parameters of topography, vegetation, time, and anthropogenic factor of soil formation, and the results were then compared. Both maps show that the study area is dominated by gray-humus soils (Someric Umbrisols [Arenic, Aric]), which is related to agricultural land use in the past and self-restoration of abandoned plowed soils. Smaller territories are occupied by alluvial peat soils (Histic Fluvisols) and postagrogenic texturally differentiated soils (Albic Retisols [Aric, Loamic]). The general accuracy of the map created by the DSM method is 57

International soil classification system—World Reference Base for Soil Resources—has been published every eight years since 1998, and in each version the number, content, and status of qualifiers was changing. According to the WRB principles, qualifiers, both Principal and Supplementary, reflect soil-forming processes. Analysis of all qualifiers (281) in the latest version of 2022 showed the priority of diagnostic horizons as criteria for identifying both categories of qualifiers, as well as of chemical soil properties. Among anthropogenic qualifiers, technogenic ones are more numerous and diverse. The number of qualifiers is maximum in soils, scattered over the world (Technosols, Cambisols, Gleysols) and minimum in strictly geographically localized soils (Nitisols). Based on their relation to soils, qualifiers are subdivided into universal, identified in almost any soil (by texture, or gley properties), and unique, characteristic of individual soils. The function of the Principal qualifiers is to create a central image of the Reference Soil Group; however, their number can be excessive. Most similar in terms of the set of Principal qualifiers were the pairs of Reference groups: Stagnosols and Planosols, Calcisol and Gypsisol, Alisols and Acrisols, which is due to the similarity of the processes that form them. The Reference groups Histosols and Gleysols are characterized by the most unique set of Principal qualifiers. In constructing the names of qualifiers, in addition to Latin and Greek morphems, formative elements from 26 world languages were involved. As an example of approaches to the analysis of qualifiers, the Podzols Reference Soil Group is considered.

This study examines soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics in different soil types across a micro-topographical gradient, focusing on topsoil SOC stabilization and turnover rates in virgin Chernozems. The thermodynamic origin of differences in SOC decomposability (henceforth referred to as "quality", or "q") between soil types is explained using a Q model that treats quality as a continuous variable rather than assuming the presence of discrete SOC pools. The model's calibration is focused on enabling effective assessment of overall SOC stocks in the topsoil (the topmost 10 cm) and the total carbon stock in the uppermost 50 cm while using radiocarbon turnover rates as secondary constraints that may be needed due to limited data availability. The SOC turnover time in the topsoil determined by modeling the SOC quality distribution function was shown to agree well with empirical findings from similar study sites, indicating that SOC turnover times are around 6-10 years in surface layers but millennia in deeper layers. This reinforces the importance of distinguishing between topsoil and subsoil carbon stocks and their respective stabilization mechanisms in Chernozems. The analysis also highlights the influence of soil temperature and moisture conditions on soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics: high topsoil moisture levels due to lateral water inputs increase SOC stabilization and thus reduce q, so wetter sites have enhanced carbon stocks. This outcome aligns with existing theories of humification in which water availability emerges as a crucial factor influencing SOC preservation and stabilization. Wetter soils also exhibit reduced decomposition due to lower temperature. This interplay between moisture, temperature, and microbial respiration rates necessitates a reevaluation of conventional beliefs about the behavior of SOC in different water regimes that stress the impact of moisture on soil respiration but not SOC stabilization. These findings also highlight the need to account for microtopographic variation, especially in semi-arid regions, in soil management programs seeking to optimize SOC retention and overall soil health. The insights into SOC dynamics presented here will be valuable for improving soil management strategies to enhance carbon sequestration in various soil types under changing climatic conditions.

In the closed depressions of the forest-steppe, unique soils form that differ significantly in their properties from the zonal Chernozems. These soils have a light-colored, acidic Albic horizon and the complete absence of carbonates. They resemble podbels, which are formed in the southern Far East of Russia, with their different soil-forming processes, regimes, and genesis. The aim of this study is to interpret the genesis of the soils in the center of the closed depression by analyzing their morphological, micromorphological, chemical, physical, and physico-chemical properties. This will help to determine the main diagnostic criteria for their classification. The depression is located in the Oka-Don Lowland, in Tambov Oblast (52.0398 degrees N, 41.1839 degrees E, See Fig. 1a). We collected a total of 39 samples, from three walls of soil pit, at 10-centimeter intervals, to a depth of 130 centimeters. For micromorphology, we took samples from all genetic horizons, in triplicate (12 samples). In the pre-dried and homogenized samples, we determined pH values, total dissolved salts and soluble salt content (conductivity), particle size distribution (laser granulometry, with preliminary ultrasonic treatment at an energy level of 450 joules per milliliter), total carbon (by dry combustion), cation exchange capacity, exchangeable cation composition (using Pfeffer's method), and iron content in oxalate extracts (Tamm's method) and dithionite-citrate extracts (Mehra-Jackson method). We also calculated the Schwertmann ratio and and the degree of hydromorphism were calculated as indicators of soil overmoisture. The diagnostic properties of the studied soil (See Fig. 1b) include: (1) a thick (30 cm) mollic horizon, rich in organic carbon, with a loosely aggregated structure and varying degrees of organic matter decomposition; this horizon is overlain by a (2) light-colored albic horizon, which has signs of humus leaching and contains up to 5% of small-sized iron-rich concretions, and (3) an illuvial horizon that has a weaker structure and a higher concentration of concretions than the overlying horizon. This horizon also has cutans along the edges of ped. The soil demonstrates a sharp decrease in carbon and a gradual increase in pH from slightly acidic to neutral values with depth (See Fig. 2). The middle part of the profile has a slightly higher clay content compared to the mollic horizon. The top 10 cm of the soil contains soluble salts at a concentration of 106 mg/ L (0.14% of soil dry mass), classifying this layer as slightly saline and chloride-magnesium. However, at the lower boundary of the soil surface (20-30 cm), the salt content drops sharply to 27 mg/L (0.04% of the dry soil mass) and does not exceed 50 mg/L in deeper layers, indicating that the soil is not saline. The anion-cation composition of the soil in the depression remains consistent throughout the profile. There are two peaks in the cation exchange capacity, one in the humus layer and another at a depth of 100-130 centimeters. This latter peak is likely due to an increase in exchangeable Ca2+, which is probably caused by its influx from solutions in the underlying carbonate parent material. The relatively high content of soluble salts and exchangeable sodium in the topsoil can be attributed to lateral water flow from surrounding depressions with solonetz and meadow-chernozem soils. Based on the Schwertmann's and hydromorphic criteria, the upper part of the soil profile, particularly the mollic and albic horizons, experience prolonged surface overmoisture. These coefficients decrease sharply in the gleic horizon. Based on a comprehensive study of soil properties, we can conclude that the light-colored horizon of the depression soil we studied is predominantly eluvio-gleyic in nature, with concretions (See Fig. 3 d, f) and cutans (See Fig. 3 c, e). In the underlying horizon, Schwertmann and hydromorphic criteria indicate seasonal surface overmoistening and periods of drying. The additional factor contributing to the formation of the light-colored horizon may be the presence of sodium in the upper horizons of the soil-absorbing complex, ranging from 4 to 14%. The soil profile formula of the studied depression soil is AH- AHel-ELhi,g-BTg (according to WRB, Ah-Eg-Btg); in terms of the genetic horizons it is absent in the Russian Soil Classification, partially corresponding to dark- humus pseudo-gleyic (AH-EL-BTg-BCA-Q; Calcic Albic Mollic Planosol, A-Eg-BtBk-Bgk), dark-humus podbel gleyic (AU-ELg-BTg; Mollic Albic Stagnosol, A-EgBtg). Unlike the dark-humus pseudo-gleyic soil, the studied soil does not contain carbonates, which are leached from the soil due to its large catchment area (55 hectares). Different from dark-humus podbel gleyic, the studied soil differs in the nature of the upper horizon and less pronounced processes of iron segregation in the lightened horizon (a lower quantity of concretions). We hypothesize that the water regime of the depression soils is less contrasting, with a smoother alternation of periods of overmoistening and drying compared to the podbels of the Far East, which may explain the lower quantity of concretions in the depression soil. Following the classical tradition of Russian soil science - reflection of the major soil-forming processes in the soil name - the studied depression soil can be termed as dark-humus elluvial gleyeic. With the expansion of soil studies in depressions and the identification of soils with a similar profile structure, introduction of an independent type of peat-dark-humus gleic soils into the Russian Soil Classification may be proposed.

The observed climate changes and increasing groundwater levels in the forest-steppe region should be reflected in the water regime of meadow-chernozemic soils (Gleyic Chernozems). This article analyzes the seasonal dynamics of volumetric moisture content in a fallow Gleyic Chernozem (Siltic, Hyperhumic, Pachic) and two arable Gleyic Chernozems (Siltic, Aric, Hyperhumic, Pachic), as well as the level of groundwater in the Tokarevskii district of Tambov oblast during the period from fall 2022 to summer 2023. The obtained data are compared with regime observations of volumetric moisture content and groundwater levels in these soils performed in 1969–1971. The use of automated monitoring systems for the soil moisture content and groundwater levels has allowed continuous data collection on soil moistureand detailed tracking of seasonal changes. The fallow meadow-chernozemic soils is characterized by higher moisture levels compared to arable soils; the upper horizons of cultivated soils are characterized by a higher frequency of wetting–drying periods and a shorter continuous duration of these periods, which is confirmed both by moisture monitoring data and by the morphological features of the soils, such as the form of carbonate pedofeatures and the depth of their detection. During the observation period in 2022–2023, the meadow-chernozemic soils were relatively dry, despite the higher than normal annual precipitation. Wilting point moisture in the top 20-cm layer of cultivated soils was established from March 2023, and in the fallow soil, from the end of April 2023. Periods with the moisture content exceeding the field capacity within the 60-cm-thick upper soil layer were not observed during the entire observation period. The soils were drier than in the dry year of 1972, when the moisture content was less than the wilting point in the upper part of the profile from June to September. In the wet years of 1969–1970, the moisture content did not drop below the wilting point in the upper 20-cm layer throughout the observation period. The main reason for this difference in the moisture content is the change in the groundwater level: in 2022–2023, the groundwater level was more than 4 m deep, whereas in 1969 it did not go deeper than 2 m, and in 1971, deeper than 4 m. As a result, the soil’s uptake of moisture through capillary rise did not occur in 2022–2023, and the water regime of the meadow-chernozemic soils more closely resembled the water regime of typical chernozems (Haplic Chernozems).

Изучены вязкость растворов натрий карбоксиметилцеллюлозы, натрия альгината, пектина яблочного, пектина цитрусового, желатина, агар-агара в концентрациях от 2 до 6 % и органолептические свойства полученных на их основе пленок плацебо. Выбраны 6 составов с оптимальными значениями вязкости поливочных растворов и органолептическими свойствами пленок. Изучена скорость высвобождения БАВ из пленок с применением кондуктометрического метода. Объектами исследований являлись полимерные матрицы на 3 % растворе натрий карбоксиметилцеллюлозы, 3,5 % растворе натрия альгината, 3 % растворе пектина яблочного, 3,5 % растворе пектина цитрусового, 3,5 % растворе желатина и 2 % растворе агар-агара. Значения констант скорости релиза пленки на основе натрий карбоксиметилцеллюлозы могут быть использованы для получения пленок с быстрым фармакологическим эффектом.

-Water movement in soils contributes to the formation of a number of specific soil properties; their interpretation makes it possible to characterize the features of particular hydrological processes and the soil water regime in general, which is important because of the limited possibilities to conduct direct monitoring of soil water movement. In this review, we consider the diagnostic indicators of mineral soils determined in the field and under laboratory conditions and characterized by different formation times and tolerance toward changes in the environmental factors. Field methods for diagnosing soil water regime make it possible to formulate hypotheses about the features of water behavior within the soil profile, which can later be confirmed or refuted as a result of laboratory diagnostic methods, regime observations, and physical and mathematical modeling. In particular, on the basis of a standard field description of soils, it is possible to identify the zone of maximum water turnover, parts of the soil profile with constant or periodic water stagnation, and the capillary fringe level. Clay coatings, root channels, and burrows of soil animals mark the preferential flows. Laboratory diagnostic methods are aimed at assessing the quantitative ratio of hydrological processes in the soil; basically, they allow to characterize the source, duration, and intensity of the period of soil overmoistening. The Schwertmann coefficient is the most commonly used and efficient analytical indicator for diagnosing soil overmoistening, which has been shown for a wide range of soils. Verification of the results of hydrological modeling on the basis of data on soil properties is potentially possible for the processes of downward and lateral runoff, physical evaporation, transpiration, evapotranspiration, and capillary rise of soil water.

This article showcases the outcomes of a comprehensive spatiotemporal dynamic analysis conducted in forest vegetation areas within the forest-steppe zone of the Central Russian Upland (eastern Europe), spanning the period from 1970 to 2020. This study utilized high-resolution data from the Corona satellite system from the year 1970 as well as satellite imagery from the ArcGIS World Imagery database. Soil properties and their changes were assessed based on the analysis of soil bulk density (930 samples), soil organic carbon features, pH, available phosphorus, and the composition of salt extracts (1362 samples). We collected and analyzed 3920 soil samples in the field to study the impact of shelterbelts on soil moisture over a period of two years. For six selected key sites with a total area of 1722 km2, it was found that over a 50-year period, the area covered by forest vegetation increased from 14% to 24%. This expansion was primarily due to the planting and growth of young shelterbelts in the 1970s–1980s as well as widening anti-erosion shelterbelts on slopes and gullies. The average linear growth rate of forest vegetation boundaries was found to be 23.5 m (4.7 m per decade) for the entire study area. The expansion was highest on west-facing slopes, which was attributed to the higher moisture content from windward atmospheric precipitation events. However, alongside the increase in forest cover, degradation was also observed, particularly in old-age shelterbelts, which was attributed to increased fragmentation and mortality. A gradual increase in the extent of shelterbelt degradation was observed from the northwest to the southeast within the forest-steppe region, corresponding to areas with a drier climate. Additionally, the impact of shelterbelts on soil properties and soil cover was analyzed using four key sites and using fields and laboratory research methods. We detected a lateral uptake of substances from plowed soils into the soils of shelterbelts and vertical uptake from deep layers. The two-year observations (2020 and 2021) of soil moisture during the growing season (May–September) in two climatically contrasting forest-steppe areas revealed a more intensive accumulation of soil moisture in fields west of shelterbelts compared to those to the east of them, particularly within the 10 m zone near the shelterbelts. This can be attributed to arable fields on the windward side receiving more moisture compared to the leeward side. The formation of striped microstructures in the soil cover that occurred under the shelterbelts and on adjacent arable lands was influenced by various factors such as microclimatic conditions, vegetation types, ecological conditions for soil fauna, and human-induced soil processing and transformation along the shelterbelt boundaries. Shelterbelts and their adjacent areas in agro-landscapes are considered to be self-developing natural–anthropogenic geosystems with their own organizational structure. Therefore, their study is recommended as an integral part of modern geographical zoning.

Natural reforestation on abandoned arable lands is one of the characteristic processes that trigger the transformation of soil organic matter accompanied by changes in the abundance, biomass, and taxonomic structure of soil macrofauna. The assessment of the time for a potential return of soil properties and macrofauna to their natural state, dynamics of soil organic matter stocks, and the role of macrofauna in this process at different stages of postagrogenic successions is relevant in the context of predicting the changes in ecosystem components and their role in organic carbon sequestration under various land use scenarios. The stock of organic carbon, soil morphological properties, as well as the abundance, biomass, and taxonomic structure of soil macrofauna in arable lands of five stages of pine forest restoration (fallow meadows and pine forests of different ages), and primary forests in the Smolenskoye Poozerye (Smolensk Lakeland) National Park (Smolensk oblast, Russia) have been examined. The soils of 85–100-year-old pine forests retain the lower boundary of the former humus horizon; at the meadow stage, restoration signs appear, namely, a shallow humus horizon pierced with roots and later transformed into a raw-humus horizon in young forests. By the age of 80, the carbon stock in the mineral soil part restores to almost background values. The soil macrofauna composition radically changes with the substitution of meadow communities by forest ones. At the initial stages (in agrocenoses and fallow meadows), the macrofauna of organomineral soil horizons is prevalent, being represented by soil earthworms and larvae of scarab beetles. Further, the macrofauna of organic horizons is restored to contain a high share of saprophages, such as epigeic and epi-endogeic earthworms, which contribute to the differentiation of litter into subhorizons. The biomass of saprophages negatively correlates with the carbon stock in the mineral part of forest soils, its content in the litter, and litter thickness and positively correlates with the share of easily decomposable litter fraction.

Search for correlations between different soil properties and assessment of their variability is important for understanding soil functioning, allows more optimal planning of field and laboratory research and creates the basis for fertilizing management and precision agriculture. This work is based on the data on the content of organic carbon, pH, bulk density, texture (fractions 1-0,25 mm; 0,25-0,05 mm; 0,05-0,01 mm; 0,01-0,005 mm; 0,005-0,001 mm and <0,001 mm and <0,01 mm), exchange calcium and magnesium carbonates for twelve sites of plowed Chernozems studied in the southern part of the Central Russian Upland (Belgorod oblast). Soil samples were taken layer by layer every 20 cm to 3 m depth. Weak correlation was revealed among studied soil characteristics of the plowed Chernozems. The least correlation with other soil characteristics is characteristic of bulk density, organic carbon content, content of fraction 0,25-0,05 mm and 0,01-0,005 mm. Correlation between the content of bicarbonates and pH values is observed only for accumulative - carbonate horizon and transition horizons. The largest number of correlations between different soil characteristics is for the non-plowed part of humus horizon and the top of transition horizon. The least amount of correlations between soil characteristics was found at depths from 80 to 100 cm. Comparison of the coefficients of variations calculated for different soil layers of a single profile (i. e. intraprofile variability) and for the same soil layers but from different profiles (i. e. lateral variability) showed that the intraprofile variability exceeds the lateral one for the organic carbon, exchangeable potassium and calcium content.

The short-range lateral variation of soil properties is a particular expression of the spatial soil variability and a non-directional short-periodic (in the range of a few meters) change in soil-profile features. Contrary to the soil cover pattern theory of discrete soil cover, the short-range variation of soil properties characterizes the soil cover continuum: the soil cover is presented as a field of various soil properties, and the boundaries of chosen ranges of soil properties may not coincide with boundaries of soil taxa. This study is based on soil data from three parallel transects (240 m long) laid on the watershed perpendicular to a 60-year-old shelterbelt and crossing it in their central part. The sampling step is 10 m on agricultural fields and 6 m under the shelterbelt. Features of the humus (the content of organic carbon in the 0–20 cm layer and the thickness of the humus horizon and profile) and carbonate (the effervescence depth, the carbonate content in the effervescence layer, and the horizon of maximal accumulation of carbonates) profiles are analyzed for 75 observation points. It is shown that the parameters of the humus and carbonate profiles of soils are characterized by periodic changes at intervals of 6–10 meters. The parameters of the humus profile are characterized by lower variation coefficients (<30

The short-range variation of soil properties is a particular expression of the spatial soil variability; it is non-directional short-periodic (in the range of a few meters) changes in soil-profile features. The short-range variation of soil properties is aimed to characterize the continuum nature of soil cover instead of the discrete (as in the soil cover pattern theory), thus the soil cover is presented by a continuum field of various soil properties, and the boundaries of the selected soil properties ranges may or may not coincide with the soil taxonomic boundaries. The study is based on soil data of three parallel transects (length 240 m) in the watershed, perpendicularly crossing the 60-year-old shelterbelt in their central part. The sampling step was 10 m on agricultural fields, 6 – under the shelterbelt; In total, the features of the humus (the content of organic carbon in the 0–20 cm layer, the thickness of the humus horizon and profile) and carbonate (the effervescence depth, the carbonate content in the effervescence layer and the horizon of maximum accumulation of carbonates) profiles were studied at 75 points. It was revealed that the parameters of the humus and carbonate profiles of soils have periodic changes with a step of 6–10 meters. The parameters of the humus profile are characterized by lower coefficients of variation (less than 30%) than the parameters of the carbonate profile of soils (more than 50%). The growth of trees on agrochernozems (Haplic Chernozem (Aric)) for 60 years led to the formation of new taxonomic components (postagrogenic agrochernozems (Haplic Chernozem)), characterized by a smaller lateral variation in soil properties compared to arable soils. In total, 3 types of soils are found within the studied area: agrochernozem (64 points; Haplic Chernozem (Aric, Loamic, Pachic)), clay-illuvial agrochernozem (7 points; Luvic Chernozem (Aric, Loamic, Pachic) and Luvic Chernic Phaeozem (Aric, Loamic, Pachic, Loamic, Pachic)) and agrochernozems, clay-illuvial quasigley (4 points; Luvic Stagnic Chernic Phaeozem (Aric, Loamic, Pachic)), including 8 subtypes.

Natural reforestation on the abandoned arable lands is one of the characteristic processes that triggers the transformation of soils, accompanied by the change in the abundance, biomass, and taxonomic structure of the soil macrofauna. The assessment of the restoration potential of the soil properties and soil macrofauna to the natural state, the duration of this period, the dynamics of soil organic carbon stocks, and the role of macrofauna in this process at different stages of post-agrogenic successions is relevant for prediction of changes in ecosystem components and their role in the storage of organic carbon under various land use scenarios. The work is based on the data on organic carbon reserves, morphological properties of soils, abundance, biomass and taxonomic structure of the soil macrofauna of arable lands, primary forests and 5 stages of pine forest restoration (fallow meadows and pine forests of different ages) at the Smolenskoye Poozerye National Park (Smolensk region). It was revealed that in the soils of the 85–100-year-old pine forests, signs of plowing are preserved in the form of the smooth lower boundary of the humus horizon. At the same time, signs of soil regradation appear already at the meadow stage and are expressed in the formation of a thin humus horizon penetrated by roots, which transforms further at the next stages. In the litter and mineral part of the soil, the carbon stocks change non-monotonically with a maximum at the meadow stage and a minimum in 70–80-year-old forests. By the age of 80, the stock of organic carbon in the mineral part of soils is almost restored to the background values. The composition of soil macrofauna changes drastically during the transition from meadow to forest communities. At the initial stages (in agrocenoses and fallow meadows), the fauna of mineral soil horizons predominates: endogeic earthworms and larvae of lamellar beetles. Further, the fauna of organic horizons is restored, among which there is a high proportion of saprophages – epigeic and epi-endogeic earthworms, which contribute to the differentiation of litter. The biomass of saprophages has a negative correlation with the carbon reserves in the mineral part of forest soils, the thickness and reserves of organic carbon in the litter, and a positive correlation with the share of the easily decomposable litter fraction.

We studied automorphic forest-steppe Luvic and Haplic Chernozems (Siltic/Clayic, Pachic) of the southern part of the Central Russian Upland (Belgorod region), which were covered with broadleaved forest vegetation at different times (from 25 to 75 years ago). The studies were carried out on an overgrowing fallow and the adjacent maple–ash shelterbelt and on an area of growth of a natural oak forest towards the virgin meadow steppe. The line of effervescence in the soil profiles descended by 12–25 cm during 60–75 years of the growth of forest vegetation on Chernozems. The average rate of carbonate carbon leaching from a 2-m soil layer reached 5 t/ha per decade. The humus horizon thickness increased by 7–13 cm. A decrease in the organic carbon storage was observed in the soil profiles during the first 25–30 years of the development of Chernozems under forest vegetation; in the following decades, the organic carbon storage increased. The soil organic matter in the upper part of the profiles (0–40 cm) was directionally enriched with fulvic acids, while the opposite tendency of an increase in the content of humic acids was observed in the middle part of the profiles (40–80 cm). The clay mobility increased in the Chernozems under forest vegetation, which is proved by an increase in the content of silty infillings in the studied chronosequence of Chernozems under tree stands of different ages (from 25 to 60–75 years) and by the appearance of clay–humus cutans in the soils under forest vegetation. The direction and staging of changes characterize the evolutionary transformation of Chernozems over time under the impact of forest vegetation. Soil changes were caused by changes in vegetation from herbaceous (meadow-steppe) to forest and the resulting changes in the hydrothermal regimes of soil formation. The staging of soil changes could be determined by the vegetation succession changes coupled with corresponding changes in the soil regimes in microclimatic conditions.

The present article deals with the determination of the total amount of glucose and fructose in natural honey samples by the optical micrometry (OM) method. (Poly)vinyl alcohol spherical granules impregnated with a 0.05 mol/l borax solution were chosen as a sensitive element. It was shown that the formation of chelate esters of boron with polymer and carbohydrates is a pH-dependent process, and that the pH range 8.5–10.0 is the most appropriate for quantifying the total amount of reducing carbohydrates because glucose and fructose are undiscriminated. The impregnated polymer is not sensitive to the sucrose presence in the solution due to the absence of cis-diol fragments in it. Subsequently, the OM method was tested in the analysis of natural honey samples. The relative standart deviation in the case of OM method is less than 6%, and the results are similar to those obtained by the iodometric titration method. This makes the OM method suitable for laboratory-scale applications.

Predictive ecosystem mapping is the basic tool for the conservation of biodiversity and its spatial structure analyses. This paper presents an ecosystem mapping approach that connected remote sensing data (SRTM, Landsat) and soil (at 92 points) and vegetation (at 64 points) description for the key site located at Tigirek nature reserve (West Altai). The linear discriminant analysis with stepwise selection of predictors (more than 60 morphometric parameters and spectral indices) is used to modeling of the vegetation and soil spatial structure. The topography classification is based on exposition and slope steepness. The ecosystem map is compiled through an overlay of soil, vegetation, and relief maps and contains 38 units. The altitude, slope, and reflection (Landsat 5, October 2011) are the main factors that determine the soil cover spatial structure; the user's accuracy of the model is 64 %. Greyzemic Chernozems (100 %), Gleyic Cambisols (92 %), and Rendzic Leptosols (89 %) have the best quality of discrimination. Altitude and 3 spectral parameters (wetness, brightness, EVI) determine the vegetation spatial structure; the user's accuracy of the model is 73 %. The dominance of mesophilic meadows and shrub communities, and also small-leaf and light coniferous forests reflects the regional features of Altai forest-steppe ecosystems. Shrub communities with Caragana arborescens in combination with Gleyic Chernozems and Gleyic Cambisols on different slopes are predominant ecosystems in the key area. The area of meadows with Dactylis glomerata and Bromus squarrosus, formed mainly on Chernic Phaeozems and Gleyic Chernozems, Cambisols, Rendzic Leptosols, and Novic Retisols on uplands and slopes of different exposure, are the second and third on the key site. The analysis of components of ecosystems characterizes the limited opportunities of indication of soils by vegetation due to only a few vegetation communities have strong confinement to soils (the area of such vegetation is about 10 % of the key site).