Grapholita molesta, which causes fruit infestation damage, produces overlapping generations, making chemical control ineffective. Excessive pesticide use causes the "3R" problem, necessitating eco-friendly alternatives. Although Ocimum basilicum repels many pests, its effects on G. molesta are unclear. Olfactory, fruit infestation, and oviposition tests showed that O. basilicum repelled G. molesta and significantly reduced fruit infestation and egg laying. To identify the repellent compounds in O. basilicum, volatile compounds were extracted using headspace adsorption. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-electrophysiological detection identified four key components. Electroantennogram and behavioral assays showed that 6-methylhept-5-en-2-one (10 μL/mL), 2-ethyltoluene (0.1 μL/mL), styrene (0.1 μL/mL), and ethyl carbonate (1 μL/mL) mediated the repellent effect, significantly reducing G. molesta fruit infestation and egg production. 6-Methylhept-5-en-2-one was most effective, decreasing fruit infestation in the field and lab and total egg production. This study reveals the repellent mechanism of O. basilicum volatiles, supporting plant-based repellent development for sustainable pest control.

Predatory mites transitioning from mass-rearing to field release undergo critical prey switching from rearing hosts to target pests. Understanding temporal adaptation of predatory capacity postswitching is essential for biological control optimization. This study examines how prey switching duration affects predatory performance in Neoseiulus bicaudus Wainstein (Mesostigmata: Phytoseiidae) following from Tyrophagus putrescentiae Schrank (Sarcoptiformes: Acaridae) to Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov et Nikolskii (Trombidiformes: Tetranychidae). The predatory adaptation of female N. bicaudus was assessed during 0 to 7 days postprey switching through integrated approaches: Y-tube olfactometry quantified olfactory responses to T. turkestani, predatory choice tests evaluated feeding preference shifts, Holling type II functional response modeling analyzed predation capacity changes, and field releases on soybean Glycine max (L.) Merr. validated biological control efficacy against T. turkestani. Prey switching enhanced N. bicaudus adaptation to T. turkestani. Olfactory preference increased steadily, with significant shifts by Day 3, peaking at 73.33% by Day 6. Feeding preference shifted from avoidance (D = -0.39, D: prey selectivity index) to strong attraction (D = 0.94), stabilizing >0.9 after Day 4. Though functional response remained Holling Type II, key parameters optimized at Day 4: minimal handling time (Th = 0.04 days), daily maximum predation (1/Th = 26.25), and predation capacity (a/Th = 21.18, where a is attack rate). Field validation showed that the suppressive effect of N. bicaudus (which had experienced prey-switching) on T. turkestani could be enhanced by up to 73.44%. Neoseiulus bicaudus progressively enhances olfactory preference, feeding preference, and predatory capacity toward target prey following prey switching. Implementing this preadaptive strategy significantly improves the mite's field control efficacy against spider mites.

Aromatic plants contribute to integrated pest management by repelling pests (push) or attracting natural enemies (pull). Ocimum basilicum (basil) and Mentha canadensis (mint) were hypothesized to exhibit both effects, showing push-pull impact on cotton aphids (Aphis gossypii) and their predators. Two years of field surveys indicated that the mean aphid abundance decreased by 30.45% +/- 4.45% within 15 m of basil and mint strips, while predator populations of Hippodamia variegata and Chrysoperla sinica increased by 31.41% +/- 8.52% and 35.63% +/- 5.97%. Rubidium labeling revealed that 55.56% +/- 0.19% of the two predator species dispersed from the functional strips into adjacent cotton fields within 15 m. This resulted in a significantly higher biological control index in the intercropping treatment groups compared with the controls. Laboratory olfactory behavioral assays, including Y-tube and cage tests, confirmed that the field repellent effect was mediated by volatiles emitted from basil and mint. The results showed that cotton aphids exhibited a generally low mean selection rate (19.54% +/- 5.76%) for cotton-basil and cotton-mint combinations, which was significantly lower than their preference for cotton-cotton combinations. This indicated a pronounced basil and mint repellent effect. These results demonstrate that incorporating aromatic plants along cotton field margins can simultaneously attract predators and suppress pests, representing an effective push-pull strategy. This study provides a practical example of integrating aromatic plants as functional plants into cotton agroecosystems.

Soil salinization poses a significant global challenge to agriculture and the environment, leading to decreased soil fertility and hindered crop growth. Therefore, the development of effective and environmentally friendly soil improvement strategies is crucial for sustainable agriculture. In this study, a range of eco-friendly, versatile, and highly absorbent hydrogels for soil enhancement were created using itaconic acid (IA) as a hydrophilic monomer. Furthermore, their effectiveness and application in agriculture were thoroughly evaluated. The nano-iron-loaded IA-based hydrogels (nano-iron (III) oxide (nano-Fe2O3)/Poly itaconic acid (PIA)-Acrylamide (AM)/Sodium alginate (SA)) hydrogels demonstrated exceptional water absorption and retention capabilities. They exhibited remarkable soil conditioning properties by leveraging carboxyl groups for electrostatic adsorption of saline ions and the porous structure created by the crosslinked network. These features not only significantly facilitated gradual regulation of pH levels and salinity but also effectively enhanced organic matter in saline-alkali soil. Meanwhile, nano-Fe2O3 simultaneously served to stabilize the hydrogel structure and enhance crop nutrient absorption. Wheat cultivation trials demonstrated that the hydrogels notably enhanced the growth of 7-day-old wheat seedlings. The degradation rates of the hydrogels can be adjusted by varying the IA amount, allowing for the continuous release of small organic molecules to enhance soil quality, aligning with various crop growth cycles. Overall, these hydrogels function as environmentally friendly and versatile soil conditioners, offering significant potential for enhancing agricultural soil quality and expanding into related fields.

[Objective] To determine the control potential of Arma chinensis against major soybean pests Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera exigua, thereby providing theoretical and practical support for biological pest control in soybean fields. [Methods] Laboratory and field experiments were conducted to assess the predation capacity, feeding preference, and field control effect of third~fifth-instar nymphs and male/female adults of A. chinensis on first, third and fifth-instar larvae of these two pests. Predation functional responses were fitted to analyze predation characteristics and the relationship between searching efficiency and prey density. [Results] Both nymphs and adults of A. chinensis preyed on the larvae of H. armigera and S. exigua, with the predation functional responses conforming to the Holling Type II disk equation, which presented the highest predatory efficiency. The female adult of A. chinensis showed strong predation capacity against H. armigera (55.368) and S. exigua (50.699) larvae, with the highest daily prey consumption of 13.158 and 13.699 individuals, respectively. Searching efficiency of A. chinensis was negatively correlated with prey density, and significantly higher for first-instar than third-instar larvae. Under cooccurrence conditions, A. chinensis displayed an obvious feeding preference for H. armigera larvae. Field trials demonstrated that female adults of A. chinensis generated a 70% population decline rate of H. armigera. Meanwhile, the population decline rate of S. exigua reached over 80%. Female adults of A. chinensis achieved field control rates of 80% against H. armigera larvae and 70% against S. exigua larvae. [Conclusions] A. chinensis has strong predation and control potential against the larvae of H. armigera and S. exigua. Among these, females of A. chinensis demonstrated the highest efficacy in controlling the two types of Lepidoptera larvae, both indoors and in field conditions. It is a promising biological control agent for soybean fields and provides a scientific basis for large-scale application.

Neoseiulus bicaudus Wainstein (Acari: Phytoseiidae), an important natural enemy of spider mites, is commonly reared on Tyrophagus putrescentiae Schrank (Acari: Acaridae) as a food source. As learning behavior enhances insect foraging efficiency, this study investigated the effects of learning behavior on the predation of Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov et Nikolskii (Acari: Tetranychidae) by N. bicaudus, by evaluating the effects of learning frequency and reward status on olfactory response and memory retention. The influence of learning experiences at different developmental stages on predation capacity as adults was also assessed, alongside the effect of learning behavior on control efficacy against Te. turkestani. Results showed that 4-nonreward learning enabled N. bicaudus to form memories lasting 0.5 h with olfactory behavioral changes, while 4-reward learning induced stable memory persisting 72 h and a significant olfactory preference for Te. Turkestani. This preference lasted at least 0.5 h and was not induced by nonreward learning. Learning experiences during the larval, deutonymphal, and female adult stages significantly increased the attack rate and prey handling time of female N. bicaudus. Among these groups, the female adult learning and larval learning groups showed the most significant predation efficiency, with maximum daily consumption of 17.54 and 19.61 prey individuals, respectively. Field trials confirmed that N. bicaudus trained through learning exhibited enhanced biological control efficacy. In conclusion, incorporating targeted learning into large-scale rearing enhances N. bicaudus's sensitivity to target prey, thereby improving biological control efficacy.

Planting flower strips around crops can regulate herbivores and predatory insects in agricultural landscapes. We conducted a three-year experiment in a cotton field comparing three plant species as flower strips (Lobularia maritima, Cnidium monnieri, and Ammi visnaga) and no flowers as a control. Field trials from 2021 to 2023 showed that the flower strips effectively attracted Hippodamia variegata, Chrysoperla sinica, Orius sauteri, and Eupeodes corollae. The population density of aphids (Aphis gossypii, Aphis atrata, and Acyrthosiphon gossypii) in the treatment plots was significantly lower than that in the control plots at distances of 0.5-5 m (2021-2023), 5.5-10 m (2021), and 10.5-15 m (2022) from the flower strips. The population densities of the main predators (H. variegata and C. sinica) in the C. monnieri treatment plots were higher than those in the control plots across the 0.5-15 m range from the flower strips in both 2021 and 2022. Rubidium marking showed that both H. variegata and C. sinica moved from the flower strips into cotton fields within a 15 m range, with transfer rates of 44.4-100% and an average migration rate of 72.2%. An exclusion cage experiment showed that, from June 25 to July 17, 2023, the biological services index in cotton fields with flower strips was higher than that in the control plots at different distances. These results demonstrate that flower strips located within 15 m of cotton fields promote predator movement and effectively suppress cotton aphids.

BACKGROUND:Tetranychus truncatus is a dominant mite pest in China, yet its population structure and pesticide resistance status remain poorly characterized. To address this, we performed whole-genome resequencing of 176 individuals, integrating them with previous data to analyze 343 individuals from 44 populations. We investigated the population genetic structure, screened for 22 target-site resistance mutations across ten genes, and reconstructed the evolutionary origins of resistance mutations in acetylcholinesterase (AChE). RESULTS:Phylogenetic analysis identified four geography-based clades. The southeast China (SEC) lineage emerged as the most genetically distinct, characterized by high differentiation yet low nucleotide diversity. However, deviations from strict geographic clustering were observed; TreeMix and admixture analyses revealed that phylogenetic outliers resulted from extensive gene flow bridging distant lineages. While resistance mutations were generally rare, high frequencies of AChE mutations were detected. Evolutionary analysis revealed contrasting patterns: the widespread F331W mutation and the derived G328A mutation (confined to northern regions) shared a single evolutionary origin, whereas the F331Y mutation, which dominated the isolated SEC lineage, arose via multiple independent origins. CONCLUSION:Resistance evolution in T. truncatus is tightly coupled with population history. The strong isolation of the SEC lineage maintains a distinct, independently evolved resistance profile (F331Y), limiting the ingress of northern haplotypes. Conversely, extensive anthropogenic gene flow in northern China has facilitated the widespread dispersal of the single-origin F331W and G328A mutations. These findings highlight that both historical divergence and human-mediated dispersal shape local resistance landscapes, necessitating region-specific management strategies. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) is a globally invasive pest that inflicts significant damage on economically important vegetable crops such as cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.) and cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). To elucidate the interactions between host plants and F. occidentalis and to support the development of sustainable management strategies, this study evaluated the host selectivity and life history parameters of F. occidentalis living on these plant species to assess its adaptability. Transcriptome–metabolome profiles and associated metabolites were analyzed in healthy plants and in those infested by F. occidentalis for 48 h to characterize the defense responses of both host species. The results showed that both plant species are attractive to F. occidentalis, with a stronger preference observed for cowpeas. However, the reproductive output of F. occidentalis was significantly higher on cucumbers (16.99 ± 0.43 eggs/female) than on cowpeas (12.00 ± 0.38 eggs/female) plants, indicating a mismatch between host preference and performance. Feeding by F. occidentalis strongly induced the brassinolide and jasmonic acid signaling pathways, activated the phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway, increased the accumulation of the lignin precursor sinapyl alcohol, and promoted lignin biosynthesis, thereby enhancing cell wall rigidity as a physical defense barrier. These findings demonstrate that cucumbers and cowpeas coordinately regulate lignin synthesis through hormone–metabolism crosstalk as a defensive strategy against thrips attack. In response, F. occidentalis adjusts its host selection and reproductive investment to overcome plant defenses, reflecting an adaptive counter-strategy in host–herbivore interactions. This study provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying plant–thrips interactions and supports the development of environmentally friendly pest control approaches.

Intensive agriculture has reduced farmland biodiversity and impaired sustainable pest control. Although planting functional plants is a key strategy for restoring farmland ecosystem balance, its specific ecological effects have yet to be clarified. From 2024-2025, monoculture and mixed plantings of Cnidium monnieri, Lobularia maritima, and Ammi visnaga were established at cotton fields to determine their regulatory effects on major pests, natural enemies, and yield of cotton. All three-species plants and their combination supported seven common predatory natural enemies. At distances of 0.5-22.5 m from functional plant strips, Aphis gossypii and Frankliniella intonsa populations were significantly lower than those in the control plot located 50 m away from the sampling area, while Hippodamia variegata populations were significantly higher. DNA detection showed that the detection rates of A. gossypii and F. intonsa predated by H. variegata were significantly lower in plots planted with three functional plants and their combination than in control plots in July. In contrast, no significant differences were observed in the detection rates for H. variegata and Orius sauteri across all treatments in June and August. Compared with the control, C. monnieri, A. visnaga and the combination increased cotton bolls per plant and seed cotton yield, with 11% higher number of bolls in A. visnaga and 7% higher seed cotton yield in combination plots. This study confirmed that planting functional plants achieves conservation biological control and increases cotton yield, providing a scientific basis for sustainable cotton production.

Foraging behavior determines natural enemies’ predation capacity and biological control efficacy. Prey density significantly affects their foraging behavior. Studying predator foraging under different prey densities with movement process analysis reveals foraging mechanisms through energy investment and return. The predatory mite Neoseiulus bicaudus (Wainstein) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) preys on pests including Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov et Nikolskii (Acari: Tetranychidae). Using video-tracking, we evaluated how T. turkestani densities (0, 1, 5, 10, 20, 30 per arena) affect N. bicaudus foraging behavior, movement, and energy gain. This research investigates behavioral mechanisms underlying prey density effects on predation capacity and evaluates biocontrol optimization from a behavioral perspective.Prey density significantly impacted N. bicaudus foraging, with attack frequency peaking at 30 prey. Time allocation among behaviors remained constant across densities. Movement analysis using machine learning algorithms (based on speed and turning angle parameters) revealed two distinct movement states: active and inactive. Below 10 prey, inactive states dominated; higher densities favored active states. Inactive states significantly affected attack frequency and prey consumption; predation rates were further modulated by movement states interactions. Energy gain correlated significantly with inactive-state duration. High prey densities decreased per-prey feeding duration but increased total energy gain and extended patch residence time.Neoseiulus bicaudus dynamically regulates predation frequency and locomotor states in response to prey density. Movement states may be the key factor influencing predation efficiency, consistent with optimal foraging theory predictions. This mechanistic understanding of predator–prey interactions provides a framework for optimizing natural enemy-based biocontrol strategies.

Neoseiulus bicaudus is a beneficial predatory mite used for the control of spider mites. Temperature is a crucial factor that influences the distribution, growth, and development of N. bicaudus. Cold acclimation is an important arthropod strategy used to improve cold tolerance. We investigated the impact of cold acclimation on the cold tolerance of N. bicaudus. To gain insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying cold acclimation of N. bicaudus, we conducted transcriptome and proteomic analyses on three cold-acclimated groups (6-h: 3 °C for 6 h; 24-h: 3 °C for 24 h; 7-day: 9 °C for 7 d). Cold acclimation, especially in the 7-day treatment, significantly improved the survival time of N. bicaudus at an acute low temperature (-6 °C). Multi-omics analysis revealed that cold acclimation in N. bicaudus involves coordinated regulation of genes and proteins related to energy metabolism and cellular protection. Cold acclimation suppressed energy-intensive pathways like fatty acid synthesis and glycolysis, reducing energy expenditure. However, it enhanced expression of proteins in fatty acid oxidation, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation pathways to maintain energy balance. Moreover, cold acclimation upregulated genes and proteins involved in mRNA processing, transport, translation regulation, protein folding, and degradation, ensuring rapid repair and synthesis of proteins for homeostasis. RNA interference of NbHSP70 and NbHSP90 showed that these genes play a vital role in regulating the cold tolerance of N. bicaudus. These findings provide valuable resources and opportunities to uncover molecular acclimation mechanisms that support cold tolerance in Phytoseiid mites.

When pests perceive the presence of natural enemies, their growth, development, and reproduction are significantly affected, a phenomenon known as non-consumptive effects (NCEs) of predators. Understanding the impact of NCEs on pests can help optimize biological control strategies. Neoseiulus bicaudus (Wainstein) is an effective predator of Tetranychus turkestani (Ugarov Nikolskii), but its NCEs on this pest remain unclear, as does whether host plants influence the predation-induced stress. This study employed two-sex life table analysis to investigate how long-term NCEs affect the life-history traits and population dynamics of T. turkestani on common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and soybean (Glycine max). Results showed that the NCEs of N. bicaudus on T. turkestani varied between the two host plants. On both hosts, the developmental duration of the protonymph stage significantly shortened, while fecundity was unaffected by NCEs. NCEs significantly reduced the lifespan of T. turkestani on common bean but had no significant effect on lifespan on soybean. On common bean, the mean generation time decreased from 15.99 to 14.68 days under NCE, with no significant changes in intrinsic rate of increase or net reproductive rate. In contrast, on soybean, NCEs significantly increased the intrinsic rate of increase by 1.38-fold and the net reproductive rate by 1.43-fold, while shortening the mean generation time by 3.15 days. This study indicates that T. turkestani experiences negative NCEs on common bean but positive effects on soybean. Therefore, host plant characteristics should be comprehensively considered when evaluating the impacts of NCEs in biological control programs.

Neoseiulus bicaudus Wainstein (Acari: Phytoseiidae) serves as an effective biological control agent for managing spider mites and small pests. The cold acclimation of predatory mites significantly influences their distribution patterns and survival at low temperatures. In this study, we examined the effects of cold acclimation on the cold tolerance of N. bicaudus and investigated the physiological responses associated with different durations of cold acclimation (6-hour: 3 °C for 6 h; 24-hour: 3 °C for 24 h; 7-day: 9 °C for 7 day) using metabolomics. Cold acclimation significantly enhanced the low-temperature survival capability of N. bicaudus. Moreover, this process elicited a range of physiological and metabolic adaptations in predatory mites. Specifically, a 7-day cold acclimation period yielded the most pronounced changes. The cold acclimation response of 24-hour and 7-day was attributed to the reprogramming of metabolites involved in sugar metabolism (e.g., D-fructose and maltose), amino acid metabolism (e.g., DL-phenylalanine and L-serine), and lipid metabolism (e.g., octanoate, (9Z)-hexadecenoic acid, cholesterol, glycerophospholipids, lysophospholipids). Additionally, 24-hour acclimation at 3 °C enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and peroxidase, along with increased levels of antioxidants like zeaxanthin, coenzyme Q10, and retinol. After 7 days of cold acclimation, the levels of various antioxidants, including glutathione, zeaxanthin, γ-tocopherol, retinol, xanthine, and carnosine, were markedly elevated. Collectively, these physiological adaptations are strongly correlated with the maintenance of homeostasis in N. bicaudus under low-temperature stress, suggesting they collectively contribute to its enhanced survival capacity.

The release of natural enemies to control pests is generally based on the occurrence of the target pest and the control ability of the released natural enemies. However, under complex field conditions, the efficacy of pest control can be influenced by non-target prey that coexists with the target pest. Neoseiulus bicaudus (Wainstein) (Acari: Phytoseiidae), a generalist predator, feeds on various species, including Tetranychus turkestani (Ugarov et Nikolskii) (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). T. turkestani and F. occidentalis often coexist and cause great damage to numerous crops. This study investigated the predation and preference of N. bicaudus towards two coexisting prey species at different prey stages, five prey ratios, and two densities. Additionally, to assess the impact of non-target prey, we evaluated its effect on the predation of target prey by predatory mites, with the two species acting as both target and non-target pests for each other. The results indicated that N. bicaudus preferred T. turkestani over F. occidentalis, showing a higher preference for mite larvae and eggs (17.90 and 17.70 individuals per day, respectively) compared to female adults and the two stages of thrips. The presence of non-target prey can promote the consumption of target prey by predatory mites. The impact index of female adult of T. turkestani on second instar nymphs of F. occidentalis was the highest (2.44). In conclusion, developing effective pest management strategies requires careful consideration of the complex dynamics and interactions among pests.

The predatory mite Neoseiulus bicaudus (Wainstein) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) is used against spider mites, whiteflies, and thrips. Knowledge of the cold acclimation and cold storage techniques for natural enemy biological control agents can promote their development and utilization. This study assessed the impact of cold acclimation on the cold tolerance of N. bicaudus. Then, a cold storage program for N. bicaudus was designed by implementing cold acclimation, followed by an evaluation of the impact of storage on the performance of N. bicaudus. After acclimation at temperatures ranging from 0 to 18 °C for a duration of 2 h to 7 d, the survival rate of mites significantly increased at low temperatures (-6 °C); The survival rate significantly increased to 90% after acclimating at 12 °C for 7 d. In addition, the supercooling point of mites significantly decreased when the acclimation temperature was below 0 °C. After cold acclimation, the survival time of N. bicaudus was 68.3 d and 60.5 d when kept at 9 °C and 12°C, respectively. The fecundity, longevity and predation capacity of female adults were unaffected by 30 d of storage at 12 °C. Furthermore, the storage did not affect the efficiency of N. bicaudus against spider mite Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov & Nikolskii (Acari: Tetranychidae). The process of cold acclimation significantly improved both cold tolerance and cold storage. Cold acclimation at 3 to 21 °C followed by 30 d of storage at 12 °C or 9 °C is recommended for maintaining the quality of N. bicaudus.

Neoseiulus bicaudus is a predatory mite species that could potentially be used for the biological control of spider mites and thrips. Floral resources can provide excellent habitats and abundant nutrients for natural enemies. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of eight floral resources on the longevity, fecundity, and predation ability of N. bicaudus. Among the considered plants, Cnidium monnieri led to the highest longevity (24 days) and fecundity (13.8 eggs) of N. bicaudus, while Tagetes erecta resulted in the lowest longevity (7 days) and fecundity (0.1 eggs) observed in the predatory mites. By comparing the effects of three nectar and pollen plants on the predation of predatory mites, it was observed that N. bicaudus still exhibited a type II functional response to Tetranychus turkestani. In the presence of pollen, the predation efficacy (a/Th) of N. bicaudus exhibited a lower value, compared to that in the absence of pollen (Control: a/Th = 24.00). When pollen was supplied, the maximum consumption (1/Th) of predatory mites was higher than in its absence (Control: 1/Th = 9.90 d−1), with the highest value obtained in the presence of B. officinalis pollen (B. officinalis: 1/Th = 17.86 d−1). The influence coefficient of predation of N. bicaudus on T. turkestani in the presence of pollen was compared in the presence of three nectar and pollen plants: Cnidium monnieri, Centaurea cyanus, and Borago officinalis. At low prey densities, the influence coefficient of C. cyanus exceeded that of B. officinalis, and the overall influence coefficient values were negative (i.e., the presence of pollen reduced predatory mite feeding on T. turkestani). They exhibited similar values at high prey densities, and all of the influence coefficient values were close to 0 (i.e., the presence of pollen had no effect on predatory mite feeding on T. turkestani). The findings revealed that diverse plant species exert differential impacts on N. bicaudus, with some influencing its lifespan and others affecting its reproductive capabilities. Furthermore, the presence of nectar and pollen plants had a significant impact on predatory mite feeding on T. turkestani at low prey densities; however, this effect diminished as the prey density increased. Therefore, we recommend planting C. monnieri, C. cyanus, and B. officinalis in the field to ensure an ample population of predatory mites. The obtained results hold significant implications for the utilization of nectar and pollen plants in eco-friendly pest management strategies within agricultural contexts.

Plant volatiles play an important role in the recruitment of arthropod natural enemies and are widely used in foraging by many species. Therefore, identification of plants that release useful volatile organic compounds (VOCs) for influencing natural enemies and for the control of pests can be helpful in conservation biological control. Cnidium monnieri (L.) can convene many predatory enemies (lady beetles, hoverflies, lacewings) as a functional plant. The Chrysoperla sinica (Tjeder) is a dominant generalist predator, and can control the population of various pests in agricultural fields. However, how C. monnier recruits C. sinica and the chemical association between them is unknown. In this study, we tested the attractiveness of odor released by flowers and leaves of C. monnieri to C. sinica in Y-tube olfactometer. Next, we conducted solid phase microextraction (SPME), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and electrophysiological studies (EAG) to analyze the compounds and identified the volatile components which have effects on C. sinica. We also used a Y-tube olfactometer to verify the effectiveness of the volatile components on C. sinica under laboratory conditions. In olfactometer trials, C. sinica adults preferred flowers compared with leaves and fresh air. In GC–MS and electroantennography trials, seventy-six volatiles extracted from C. monnieri, twelve antenna-active components in three different concentrations (0.1 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, 10 μg/mL) were detected for electroantennography. In the last behavioral identification assays, four synthetic compounds (10 μg/mL) had significant attractiveness of adult C. sinica antenna (i.e., γ-terpinene, trans-β-Ocimene, nerolidol, (Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol). These studies suggest that there is a chemical association between natural enemies C. sinica and the functional plant C. monnieri. This study provides a basis that can facilitate the production and application of attracting natural enemy and development and application of enhancing attractants.