Camellia oleifera, belonging to the genus Camellia, is an important woody edible oil plant with high ecological and economic values. In this study, we assembled a chromosome-level genome of Camellia brevistyla that represents the closest diploid relative of polyploid C. oleifera based on current research. The genome size of the assembly was 3.10 Gb with a contig N50 size of 88.60 Mb. The BUSCO completeness score was estimated to be 98.88%, indicating high assembly completeness. A total of 2.29 Gb of the sequences were annotated as repetitive elements, accounting for 73.67% of the entire genome assembly. A total of 35,093 protein-coding genes were predicted, with the annotation completeness evaluated to be 97.03% via BUSCO analysis. In conclusion, the high-quality C. brevistyla genome is a pivotal genetic resource within the genus Camellia, which can serve as a vital diploid comparator for evolutionary and genomic studies in the more complex polyploid C. oleifera.

Jatropha curcas L. is an important biofuel plant, but its narrow cultivation range and low seed yield limit its large-scale commercialization. Both genetic improvement and the large-scale clonal propagation of elite genotypes require an efficient and reliable regeneration system. In this study, a high-frequency adventitious shoot regeneration protocol was developed using leaf explants from one-year-old greenhouse-grown plants derived from seeds. An L9(33) orthogonal design was employed to optimize the concentrations of plant growth regulators (PGRs). The optimal combination for adventitious shoot induction was 1.0 mg·L-1 TDZ, 0.5 mg·L-1 IBA, and 1.5 mg·L-1 BA. Furthermore, the effect of sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a nitric oxide donor, was investigated. Supplementation with 2.0 mg·L-1 SNP significantly increased both the regeneration frequency and the shoot number per explant when compared to the control. Leaf maturity also significantly influenced the regeneration capacity, with the fourth expanded leaf at the light-green stage showing the greatest response. Under optimized conditions, including PGRs, SNP, and appropriate explant maturity, adventitious shoots were observed within 4 weeks, with a regeneration frequency of 88.0% and an average of 18.7 shoots per explant. This system provides a practical basis for the propagation and genetic improvement of J. curcas.

Sexual dimorphism is fundamental to reproduction in dioecious plants and is regulated by both genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. DNA methylation is a central epigenetic mark known to influence phenotypic variation in plants. However, its specific role in shaping sexual dimorphism in dioecious trees remains poorly understood. To address this question, we performed integrated genome-wide DNA methylome and transcriptome analyses of four tissue types in the dioecious tung tree (Vernicia montana), including male and female flower buds and their corresponding leaves. Our analysis revealed distinct DNA methylation patterns between male and female tissues. Notably, the coordination between DNA methylation reprogramming and transcriptional regulation appeared to be more strongly associated with reproductive development than with vegetative growth in V. montana. We identified a set of sex-biased genes that may reflect different reproductive strategies between the sexes. Further analysis identified several key transcription factors (TFs) potentially associated with promoter differentially methylated regions (DMRs), including flowering-time regulators (e.g., FRS5, REM16, and VRN1) and TFs involved in hormone signaling pathways such as jasmonic acid, auxin, and salicylic acid signaling. Cis-regulatory element analysis showed that some promoter DMRs overlapped with hormone response elements related to abscisic acid, auxin, and gibberellin. Co-expression network analysis further revealed potential regulatory correlations among promoter DMR-mediated TFs, hormone-responsive pathways, and key floral development regulators. Collectively, our results suggest that interactions among DNA methylation, transcriptional regulation, and hormone-responsive pathways may contribute to the establishment of sexual dimorphism in V. montana. This study provides the first integrated view of these regulatory layers in V. montana and supports a species-specific regulatory framework for understanding the epigenetic basis of sexual dimorphism in this economically important dioecious tree. The proposed framework is based on multi-omics analyses and warrants further validation through targeted functional studies.

Vernicia fordii Hemsl (also known as Tung tree), an significant commercial oil-producing tree species, is a monoecious and diclinous species with male and female flowers on the same inflorescence; however, the molecular mechanisms governing its floral sex determination remain elusive, particularly the genetic basis underlying the skewed female-to-male flower ratio and the evolutionary dynamics of sex-related gene families, which severely restrict targeted breeding for yield enhancement. In the model plant Arabidopsis, the BRI1 EMS SUPPRESSOR 1 (BES1) transcription factor family plays a crucial role in Brassinosteroid (BR) signaling and reproductive development. However, its function remains largely unexplored in woody perennials. In this study, we introduce the genome-wide identification and functional characterization of the BES1-like (VfBES1) gene family in the Tung tree for the first time. Integrative multi-omics approaches reveal seven VfBES1 genes that are clustered into three phylogenetically distinct clades, each characterized by clade-specific motifs and structural simplicity. Segmental duplication events (VfBES1-1/VfBES1-5 and VfBES1-4/VfBES1-7) and promoter cis-element enrichment (hormone-responsive and abiotic stress-related motifs) highlight evolutionary innovation and functional diversification. Spatiotemporal expression profiling reveals VfBES1 genes’ tissue- and stage-specific roles. VfBES1-1 predominantly expresses in female flowers and fruits, suggesting its possible roles in late-stage sex maintenance or ovule and fruit development. VfBES1-2 and VfBES1-6 exhibit male flower-specific and early floral developmental activation, respectively. Nuclear-localized VfBES1-6 displays co-expression with VfMYB35-1 gene, which is a regulator of male structure degeneration. Findings in this study shed light on the regulatory roles of VfBES1 genes in the floral development of the Tung tree, providing a reference for its precision breeding to enhance flowering synchrony and seed productivity. This study also provides a comparative framework for understanding the functional diversity of BES1-like genes in non-model woody plants.

BACKGROUND:Mung bean sour liquid (MBSL) is a traditional fermented food, yet the microbial-metabolic basis of its antioxidant capacity is unclear. This study employed integrated metagenomics and metabolomics to elucidate the dynamic formation of antioxidant biomarkers during fermentation. RESULTS:The mid-fermentation stage (6-12 h) was critical for antioxidant development, marked by peak accumulation of key biomarkers such as phenyllactic acid, epigallocatechin and catechin. Antioxidant activity [2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl/2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)] (DPPH/ABTS) significantly increased during this period, reaching 77.4% and 74.5% by 24 h. These changes were directly correlated with specific Lactobacillus spp. (e.g. Lactobacillus curvatus and Lactobacillus mudanjiangensis). Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis revealed stage-specific metabolic reprogramming, from early activation of amino acid/lipid metabolism to late-phase downregulation of central carbon metabolism. Correlation networks further linked these Lactobacilli to key carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZy), such as glycoside hydrolases. CONCLUSION:This study decipheedr the microbial-driven metabolomic remodeling that governs antioxidant capacity in MBSL, demonstrating a clear temporal alignment between key metabolite accumulation and functional enhancement. This work decodes the scientific basis of its traditional value and establishes a robust foundation for its targeted optimization and development as a health-promoting functional beverage. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Tung tree (Vernicia fordii) serves as an economically important woody oilseed plant. High-quality protoplasts are essential for applications such as somatic hybridization, studying cell signal transduction and rapid gene function analysis. A reliable protocol for protoplast isolation and transient gene expression was developed using petals, anther-derived callus, and root tips as source materials. Through systematic optimization of key parameters such as enzyme combinations, osmotic pressure, digestion duration, and centrifugation speed, we successfully established tissue-specific isolation protocols. To ensure the availability of widely applicable experimental materials, protoplasts isolated from anther-derived callus were used to optimize transient transformation conditions. Under the optimized parameters (20 µg plasmid, 40

Lilies (Lilium spp.) are globally important ornamental crops which are constrained by their narrow thermal tolerance range. However, tiger lily (Lilium lancifolium), a wild lily species, exhibits remarkable cold tolerance. Based on our previous findings, we proposed that LlR3MYB, an R3-MYB transcription factor (TF), confers cold tolerance via transcriptional regulation of flavonoid metabolism in tiger lily. Here, we revealed that LlR3MYB represents a unique CPC-type R3-MYB TF exhibiting a bifunctional role in flavonoid metabolism. Specifically, LlR3MYB suppresses anthocyanin biosynthesis while promoting non-anthocyanin flavonoid accumulation (i.e. flavonols, flavones, and chalcones) responding to cold stress. Overexpression of LlR3MYB in tobacco and tiger lily increased total flavonoid content but reduced anthocyanin levels, consistent with the upregulation of early biosynthesis genes (e.g. CHS and FLS) and repression of late biosynthesis genes (e.g. DFR and ANS) in the pathway. In contrast, silencing LlR3MYB in tiger lily reduced total flavonoid production, enhanced anthocyanin accumulation, and compromised cold resistance. Mechanistically, LlR3MYB can directly bind to the AC-I element (ACCTACC) and MBSI motif (CAACGGTT) in the LlCHS2 promoter and activating its transcription, with enhanced activation under low temperature conditions. Mutations of critical residues within the C1/C2 repressor motifs may endow LlR3MYB with this transcriptional activation function. Furthermore, LlDREB can directly bind to the DRE motif (ACCGAC) in the LlR3MYB promoter and activating its transcription in a low-temperature-dependent manner. Our findings uncover a branch-specific regulatory mechanism by which MYB TFs fine-tune flavonoid biosynthesis, highlighting their essential role in plant cold stress responses.

Vernicia montana is a dioecious woody tree with a ZW sex determination system, yet the molecular basis of sex determination remains poorly understood. Here, we constructed a chromosome-level, haplotype-resolved female genome assembly using PacBio HiFi sequencing and Hi-C scaffolding, and integrated population-scale coverage-based genome-wide association analysis of 178 natural individuals to identify sex-associated loci. A highly localized sex-associated signal was detected on ChrB02, defining a ~61.4-kb W-specific sex-determining region (SDR) that is sharply bounded by conserved syntenic blocks but internally enriched in haplotype-specific insertions, duplications, inversions, and a complex inverted-repeat architecture. Polymerase chain reaction assays further validated multiple female-specific segments within this structurally heterogeneous region. Two conserved genes were identified at the SDR boundaries. Notably, VmBASS4.2 displayed pronounced developmental dynamics and broad reproductive expression and is positioned adjacent to major structural rearrangements within the SDR, making it a compelling candidate for functional validation. Heterologous overexpression in Arabidopsis impaired stigma receptivity and increased floral and silique abortion, supporting a dosage-sensitive role in reproductive development. Collectively, our findings suggest that sex determination in V. montana is not driven by the emergence of a novel sex-determining gene but instead is associated with local inverted-repeat-mediated structural remodeling that reshapes the regulatory landscape of pre-existing boundary genes such as VmBASS4.2. This study proposes an inverted-repeat-mediated SDR evolution model, providing a plausible framework linking local structural architecture to regulatory divergence during the early evolution of homomorphic sex chromosomes in plants.

IntroductionMelon (Cucumis melo L.) is an important economic crop, yet its cultivation relies heavily on manual pruning to regulate branching, which limits melon industrialization. Branching originates from axillary bud development, a process regulated by polar auxin transport, in which ABCB proteins serve as key auxin transporters. However, systematic identification of the ABCB gene family in melon and the functional roles of its members in axillary bud development have not been systematically elucidated.MethodsWe performed a genome-wide identification of the ABCB gene family from the latest melon genome using bioinformatics approaches. We systematically analyzed the physicochemical properties and other characteristics of the identified CmABCB genes. Additionally, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and qRT-PCR were employed to investigate the expression patterns of these genes in axillary buds under IAA treatment.ResultsThrough this genome-wide identification, we identified a total of 39 CmABCB genes in the melon genome. Phylogenetic analysis classified them into five subgroups, with Group I being unique to melon. Collinearity analysis revealed a close evolutionary relationship between melon and cucumber. Expression profiling revealed that several genes responded specifically to IAA treatment. Notably, CmABCB14, CmABCB20, and CmABCB21 exhibited a statistically significant positive correlation between their expression levels and IAA concentration.DiscussionCollectively, these findings suggest that CmABCB14, CmABCB20, and CmABCB21 may function as auxin efflux carriers that suppress axillary bud growth. This study therefore provides a theoretical basis for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying branching regulation in melon and offers a valuable framework for the precise improvement of plant architecture and the reduction of production costs through molecular breeding.

Hippophae gyantsensis Lian is an important native tree species in the “One River, Two Streams” valley of Tibet, valued for its ecological restoration potential and nutrient-rich fruits. However, this species has several limitations, including a long fruiting cycle (3–5 years to flowering and 10–15 years to reach peak fruit production), small fruit size, and numerous branch thorns. These traits hinder large-scale cultivation and mechanized harvesting, creating an urgent need for improved varieties with larger fruit and higher yield. In this study, we established an efficient Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation system for H. gyantsensis using hypocotyls as explants. Under optimized conditions (OD600 = 0.5, AS = 200 μmol/L, infection time = 15 min), the transformation efficiency reached 36.67% (calculated as the number of PCR-positive plants divided by the total number of explants initially inoculated with Agrobacterium). A rooting rate of 12.5% was achieved using 100 mg/L rooting powder (ABT1) for 40 min, resulting in an overall success rate of approximately 4–5%. Furthermore, we identified and cloned two fruit-size-related genes, Hgfw2.2 and Hgfw3.2, from H. gyantsensis. Heterologous expression of Hgfw2.2 and Hgfw3.2 in tomato decreased and increased fruit size, respectively, consistent with their regulatory roles in fruit development. Given the positive regulatory effect of Hgfw3.2, this gene was further transformed into H. gyantsensis. This study represents the first report of a stable genetic transformation platform for H. gyantsensis, providing a robust technical foundation for future molecular breeding and the development of improved, large-fruited varieties.

Tung oil, obtained from the seeds of the tung tree (Vernicia fordii), holds significant economic value. Nevertheless, the low proportion of female flowers in tung trees limits tung oil yield. Studying the expression of genes involved in sex differentiation provides a promising strategy for increasing the female flower ratio through molecular breeding. Accurate normalization is critical for stable gene expression quantification in qRT-PCR. This study identified stable reference genes for sex differentiation research in the tung tree. Using transcriptome data from diverse floral samples of tung tree, we identified 10 candidate genes and subsequently assessed their expression stability across various tissues using multiple algorithms. Among them, ERF3A and OLA1 exhibited the highest stability in floral tissues. Validation experiments demonstrated that using these stable genes for normalization yielded consistent expression patterns for target genes AP3 and SEP2-2, whereas unstable references led to significant misinterpretation. Thus, ERF3A and OLA1 are proposed for use as reference genes in qRT-PCR when investigating sex differentiation in the tung tree. This study lays a solid foundation for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of sex differentiation in the tung tree.

Glaucoma and Alzheimer's disease (AD), two neurodegenerative disorders with potential mechanistic overlaps, share dysregulated pathways involving neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. This study investigates the neuroprotective role of S100A11, an S100 protein family member linked to NF-κB and antioxidant signaling, in both diseases. By integrating bioinformatics and experimental approaches, transcriptomic datasets (GSE27276 for glaucoma, GSE97760 for AD) were analyzed to identify shared differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Functional enrichment revealed DEG associations with neural conduction, neurotransmitter transport, and membrane function. In vitro and in vivo models demonstrated that S100A11 overexpression enhances cell proliferation, suppresses apoptosis, alleviates neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, and improves optic nerve and cognitive functions, mediated via NF-κB/MAPK pathway modulation. Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis, leveraging GWAS data, found no causal link between four glaucoma subtypes (including POAG and PACG) and AD. Despite this, overlapping molecular mechanisms-particularly S100A11-driven regulation of neuroinflammatory and antioxidant responses-suggest neural system dysregulation as a shared pathogenic hallmark. These findings position S100A11 as a dual therapeutic target for glaucoma and AD, bridging neurodegenerative processes through pathway-specific neuroprotection. The study underscores the complexity of neurodegenerative comorbidities while highlighting S100A11's translational potential in mitigating cross-disease pathology.

BACKGROUND:The BAG gene family, encoding Bcl-2-associated anti-apoptotic proteins, plays pivotal roles in regulating plant growth, development, and stress responses. Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), a globally significant oilseed and cash crop, is highly valued for its economic importance. However, systematic genome-wide analysis and functional characterization of the BAG gene family in peanut remain largely unexplored. RESULTS:In this study, we identified 13 AhBAG genes in the peanut genome, which are unevenly distributed across 11 chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these AhBAG genes, together with BAG family members from other plant species, are classified into four distinct clades, underscoring their evolutionary conservation. Segmental duplication was identified as a major driver of the expansion of the AhBAG gene family. Notably, AhYSVF0U exhibited significant upregulation under Ralstonia solanacearum infection and abscisic acid treatment, suggesting its potential involvement in mediating peanut resistance to bacterial wilt. CONCLUSIONS:This study provides comprehensive insights into the evolutionary and functional characteristics of the peanut BAG gene family and offers valuable genetic resources for molecular breeding programs aimed at improving stress tolerance in peanut.

Rosa banksiae, known as Lady Banks' rose, is a perennial ornamental crop and a versatile herb in traditional Chinese medicine. Given the lack of genomic resources, we assembled a HiFi and Nanopore sequencing-derived 458.58 Mb gap-free telomere-to-telomere high-quality R. banksiae genome with a scaffold N50 = 63.90 Mb. The genome of R. banksiae exhibited no lineage-specific whole-genome duplication compared with other Rosaceae. The phylogenomic analysis of 13 Rosaceae and Arabidopsis through a comparative genomics study showed that numerous gene families were lineage-specific both before and after the diversification of Rosaceae. Some of these genes are candidates for new genes that have evolved from parental genes through fusion events. Fusion genes are divided into three types: Type-I and Type-II genes contain two parental genes that are generated by duplication, distributed in the same and different regions of the genome, respectively; and Type-III can only be detected in one parental gene. Here, Type-I genes are found to have more relaxed selection pressure and lower Ks values than Type-II, indicating that these newly evolved Type-I genes may play important roles in driving phenotypic evolution. Functional analysis exhibited that newly formed fusion genes can regulate the phenotype traits of plant growth and development, suggesting the functional significance of these genes. This study identifies new fusion genes that could be responsible for phenotype evolution and provides information on the evolutionary history of recently diverged species in the Rosa genus. Our data represents the major progress in understanding the new fusion genes evolution pattern of Rosaceae and provides an invaluable resource for phylogenomic studies in plants.

Bisphenol A (BPA), a well-recognized endocrine-disrupting chemical, is a significant environmental contaminant linked to various health disorders. Therefore, the development of rapid and sensitive BPA detection methods is essential for accurate monitoring in complex matrices. In this study, an electrochemical biosensor was constructed that synergistically combines the catalytic activity of laccase with the conductive properties of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Laccase was effectively immobilized within a Co3(PO4)2-based hybrid nanoflower through biomimetic mineralization, forming a spatially confined catalytic system. Structural characterization of the nanoflowers revealed their spherical morphology with hierarchical porosity and an average diameter of 6 μm. The laccase@Co3(PO4)2/MWCNTs nanocomposite-modified glassy carbon electrode demonstrated good catalytic performance for BPA oxidation, exhibiting high sensitivity (3.592 μA·μmol-1 L) and a low detection limit of 0.015 μM (S/N = 3)). Practical applications in analyzing commercial bottled water and plastic infant bottles confirmed the biosensor's reliability. This research presents an efficient and cost-effective approach for BPA risk assessment, contributing to the protection of public health.

Background The Tung tree (Vernicia fordii Hemsl.), a commercially significant oil-producing tree species. However, the molecular mechanisms governing floral sex determination remain elusive, particularly the genetic basis underlying the skewed female-to-male flower ratio and the evolutionary dynamics of sex-related gene families, which severely restricts targeted breeding for yield enhancement. The BES1 transcription factor family, which plays a crucial role in Brassinosteroid (BR) signaling and reproductive development, is particularly underexplored in woody perennials. Results In this study, we introduce the first genome-wide identification and functional characterization of the VfBES1 gene family in the Tung tree. Integrative multi-omics approaches have revealed seven VfBES1 genes, clustered into three phylogenetically distinct clades, each characterized by lineage-specific motifs and structural simplicity. Segmental duplication events (VfBES1-1/VfBES1-5 and VfBES1-4/VfBES1-7) and promoter cis-element enrichment (hormone-responsive and abiotic stress-related motifs) highlight evolutionary innovation and functional diversification. Spatiotemporal expression profiling reveals tissue- and stage-specific roles: VfBES1-1 was predominantly expressed in female flowers and fruits, suggesting potential involvement in sex determination. Conversely, VfBES1-2 and VfBES1-6 exhibited male flower-specific and early floral developmental activation, respectively. Nuclear-localized VfBES1-6 displayed co-expression with VfMYB35-1, a regulator of male structure degeneration, although no direct interaction was detected. Conclusions These findings shed light on the regulation of VfBES1s in floral development, offering a reference for precision breeding to enhance flowering synchrony and seed productivity in the Tung tree. This study provides a comparative framework for understanding lineage-specific BES1 functions in non-model woody plants.

Peanut bacterial wilt (BW) is an extremely destructive soil-borne disease capable of causing yield losses exceeding 50%. However, the molecular mechanism underlying resistance to BW remains elusive. Here, we present the first single-cell expression atlas of peanut roots, comparing a BW-resistant ariety (H108) with a susceptible variety (H107). We profiled 24,384 and 23,693 cells from the varieties, categorizing them into 10 distinct cell types with in situ hybridization confirming. Among them, 2,148 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were predominantly concentrated in cortex cells. Notably, the Ah2J79JM gene, which encodes protease inhibitors (AhKTI), was validated as responsive to Ralstonia solanacearum infection. Overexpression of Ah2J79JM in peanuts resulted in more densely arranged cortex cells, significantly enhancing resistance to BW. The study highlights the architecture of cortex cells as a crucial defensive barrier and provides a valuable single-cell genetic resource, along with insights into the mechanisms underlying BW resistance to facilitate peanut improvement.

IntroductionCamellia oleifera, a crucial woody oil crop in China, produces seeds with over 90% unsaturated fatty acids offering substantial nutritional value and exists predominantly as cultivated tetraploid varieties (2n=4x=60) due to its polyploid nature. The DNA-binding with one finger (Dof) transcription factor play multiple roles in plant growth, development, and abiotic stress response pathways. However, the regulatory mechanisms of Dof genes underlying fatty acids/lipids biosynthesis during seed morphogenesis in Camellia oleifera remain poorly characterized.MethodsIn this study, genome-wide identified a total of 40 members of the CoDof family with 116 alleles in tetraploid Camellia oleifera (COL-tetra).ResultsAll members possess varying numbers of highly conserved C2-C2-type zinc finger domains. Phylogenetic analysis clustered CoDof genes into nine categories, and significant divergence was observed in the expression levels of all family members across different growth and development stages of COL-tetra seeds. After physiological data determination at various levels, differential expression analysis and correlation analysis of fatty acid/lipid synthesis genes revealed that CoDof30.1 is a typical candidate nuclear-localized transcription factor which significantly highly expressed in the middle period of seed development.DiscussionOur findings not only comprehensively characterize the genomic organization of CoDof family but also propose a functional candidate for lipid biosynthesis regulation, thereby advancing molecular breeding strategies and elite cultivar selection in COL-tetra.

Mung Bean Sour Liquid (MBSL), a traditional fermented food indigenous to Luoyang, China, acquires its distinctive organic properties and bioactivity through complex microbial metabolic interactions. To decode its dynamic microbial-metabolic network, this study integrated metagenomic sequencing and LC-MS metabolomics across four fermentation stages (1 h, 6 h, 12 h, 24 h). Results revealed Lactobacillus dominance (75.85-85.53 %) persistent through fermentation, when Lactococcus proliferated substantively in terminal phases(9.81 % at 24 h). Fungal communities exhibited stage-specific dynamics: Verticillium dahliae dominated early phases (43.89-49.98 %), whereas Tilletia controversa and Saccharomyces cerevisiae surged 3.3-and 8.3-fold by 24 h. Metabolomic profiling identified 84 key metabolites, including 20 functional peptides (e.g., His-Val, Tyr-Leu), 15 carbohydrates, and 10 lipids. Secondary metabolites (coumarins, terpenoids, lactones) accumulated mid-to-late fermentation, contributing sweet/nutty notes, antioxidant activity, and antimicrobial effects. Correlation analysis uncovered genus-specific metabolic roles: Lactococcus species positively associated with lipid oxidation products (e.g., cis-9,10-epoxystearic acid), while Lactobacillus plantarum regulated organic acid metabolism. Fungal genera (e.g., Penicillium italicum, Tremella fuciformis) showed distinct metabolite correlations, suggesting cross-kingdom interactions. This study elucidates the microbial-metabolite interplay governing MBSL's flavor and functionality, providing insights for optimizing fermentation processes and developing functional ingredients.

Camellia oil, a nutritionally rich edible oil derived from Camellia oleifera seeds, is predominantly stored as triacylglycerol (TAG) during fruit maturation. However, a limited understanding of the genetic and regulatory mechanisms governing Camellia oil accumulation has hindered efforts to optimize its yield. In this study, three C. oleifera diacylglycerol acyltransferase (CoDGAT) genes were identified and characterized, wherein CoDGAT1 emerged as the primary contributor to seed TAG biosynthesis, functioning within the endoplasmic reticulum and increasing seed oil content by 64.4% in transgenic plant. Through weighted gene coexpression network analysis, we identified WRINKLED1 (CoWRI1) as a candidate transcriptional regulator of CoDGAT1. Both genes exhibited significant upregulation during seed maturation. Mechanistically, CoWRI1 activated CoDGAT1 by directly binding to AW-box motifs in its promoter, thereby promoting TAG accumulation. Additionally, CoWRI1 expression was suppressed by salicylic acid, methyl jasmonate, and darkness, suggesting that phytohormones and environmental signals modulate TAG accumulation through the WRI1-DGAT1 pathway. These findings provide an important basis for improving Camellia oil production through biotechnological manipulation of DGAT1 and WRI1 genes.